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THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 



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No. 20 



The Picture Completion Test 

BY 

Rudolf Pintner and Margaret M. Anderson 
Ohio State University 




WARWICK & YORK, INC. 

BALTIMORE, U. S. A. 
1917 






Copyright, 1917 
By Warwick & York, Inc. 



JAN -4 1318 

©CI.A481953 



EDITOR'S PREFACE 

Progress in mental testing has been greatly reduced, 
as all workers in that field are well aware, because of 
lack of standardization both with respect to the meth- 
ods of administering tests and also with respect to 
the methods of scoring them. Closely allied with 
these lacks is the further lack of adequate norms of 
performance, gathered from a sufficient number of 
cases to indicate not merely the average performance 
but also the entire range of performance as conditioned 
by age, sex, school training and what other factors 
may be influential. 

The present monograph supplies these desired data 
for a single test — the Healy Picture Completion Test. 
By applying it to over 1500 children the authors have 
been able to arrive at an empirically determined 
method of scoring, to establish norms of percentile 
distribution for each age from 6 to 14 and incidentally 
to ascertain the connections between performance in 
it and sex, social environment and school standing. 

Work of this sort is directly valuable to all persons 
who make use of mental tests with children and it is 
equally valuable to those who are interested in the 
technique of standardizing tests and in working out 
by empirical methods the best rules for administering 
and scoring them. G. M. W. 



CONTENTS 



Chapter I. Introduction 1 

Chapter II. The Test. 9 

Chapter III. The Method of Procedure and the Subjects 

Tested 16 

The Procedure „_ 

The Subjects 

Chapter IV. The Results 22 

Chapter V. The Determination of the Scores 52 

Percentage Distribution 

Correlations 

Inter-correlations ; 

Chapter VI. Norms 70 

Percentiles 

Year Scale Norms 

Chapter VII. Sex, Social Status and School Standing 78 

Sex Differences 

Differences in Social Status 

Racial Differences 

School Standing 

Chapter VIII. Other Methods of Scoring 86 

Healy's Method 

Number of Right and Wrong Moves 

Chapter IX. The Time 93 

Chapter X. Conclusion 98 



CHAPTER I 
Introduction 

The growing demand on the part of clinical psychol- 
ogists for a greater variety of tests to aid in mental 
examinations and for adequate standardizations of 
tests is leading to the introduction of new tests and 
to more intensive studies of tests already in common 
use. The necessity on the part of the practical worker 
for a number of tests and the relative ease with which a 
new test can be devised has resulted, in many instances, 
in the use of a test for practical work before any 
real analysis or standardization of the test has been 
made. To draw conclusions from any specific per- 
formance in a test before a real study of it has been 
made, is at best a very dangerous procedure, and the 
basing of diagnoses of individual cases upon the results 
of tests that have not been carefully studied is one of 
the things which in some quarters has helped to bring 
clinical psychology into disrepute. If we are to use 
a test for purposes of differential diagnosis, we must 
be certain that we know what is a normal performance. 
We have no justification in saying that any specific 
performance is a bad performance, say for a six-year- 
old child, until we know what the average six-year-old 
can do. What may seem to us as adults a very bad 
performance may be the common six-year-old response 
to the situation. In short, the careful clinical worker 
will not use for diagnostic purposes any test until it 
has been adequately standardized. 

The question of the adequate standardization of 
mental tests has been until recently a somewhat ne- 
glected phase in the psychology of individual differ- 
ences. Previous workers did not attempt to set 
standards, but were primarily interested in the results 

1 



^ THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 

of tests as applied to specific groups of individuals, 
and the main emphasis was thrown upon the study of 
the test rather than upon the individual. It was the 
test that was primarily under consideration. Further- 
more, great interest was shown in the question as to 
what the test was testing, whether memory or imagin- 
ation, or other psychical process. This point of view 
dominates the earlier work in the psychology of tests, 
such as the studies of Cattell and Farrand,^ Kirk- 
patrick,2 Woodworth and Wells, => and many others. 

This point of view is, of course, a necessary one and 
naturally precedes the use of tests for practical diag- 
nostic purposes. The results of the large amount of work 
with individual tests of varying nature are best seen in 
the compilation of Whipple,^ and the arrangement of 
the tests into tests of sensory capacity, of attention, of 
perception, etc., is indicative of the point of view. 

Paralleling this development of the psychology of 
tests, and in recent times very largely overlapping, we 
have the question of the relation of test to test, or of 
the relation of abilities as tested by any two or more 
tests. This is the question of the correlation of tests 
and the decided interest shown in this aspect of the 
problem may be traced back to the work of Spearman, ^ 

"■ Cattell, J. McK., and Farrand, L., Physical and Mental Measure- 
ments of the Students of Columbia University. Psych. Review, 3, 
1896, 618-648. 

2 Kirkpatrick, E. A. Individual Tests of School Children. Psych. 
Review, 7: 1900, 274-280. 

^ Woodworth, R. S. and Wells, F. L. Association Tests. Psych. 
Review Monographs, 13: 1911, No. 5. 

* Whipple, G. M. Manual of Mental and Physical Tests. 2 Vols. 
Warwick and York, 1914-15. 

^Spearman, C, General Intelligence, Objectively Determined and 
Measured, Amer. J. of Psych., 15: 1904, 201-293. 

Hart, B., and Speaiman, C, General Ability, its Existence and 
Nature, Brit. J. of Psych., 5: 1912, 51-79. 

Krueger, F., and Spearman, C, Die Korrelation zwischen verschie- 
denen geistigen Leistungsfahigkeiten, Zeitschr. f. Psych., 44: 1907, 50- 
114. 



INTRODUCTION 6 

although some work had been done before his time, 
notably by Wissler/ and although the question had 
been raised at the very beginning of the interest in 
mental measurements by Galton^ himself. The studies 
bearing upon the correlations of tests have been numer- 
ous. Among such studies may be mentioned the 
work of Burt,8 Simpson,^ Whitley,i" Brown," and others. 
Although the results of this work are often contradic- 
tory, yet the point of view emphasized has thrown a 
great deal of light upon our knowledge of tests. It is 
a line of approach that raises very definitely the 
questions what the tests are testing and what is the 
meaning of intelligence itself. 

Neither of these two streams in the development of 
the psychology of tests leads us directly to the problem 
of standardization with which we are here more nearly 
concerned. Both of them are fundamentally con- 
cerned with the test itself or with the psychical pro- 
cess it is supposed to be testing. A slight shift in 
point of view from the test or the psychical process to 
the individual tested leads to another line of develop- 
ment in the history of mental tests. This appeared 
as soon as the question was raised what light per- 
formance in a test throws upon the psychological 
make-up of the individual tested. This slight change 
in point of view was a natural outgrowth of the in- 



^ Wissler, C, The Correlation of Mental and Physical Tests, Psych. 
Review Monographs, 3: 1901, No. 6. 

^ Galton, F., Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development, 1883. 

* Burt, C., Experimental Tests of General Intelhgence, Brit. J. of 
Psych., 3, 1909, 94-178. 

^ Simpson, B. R., Correlations of Mental Abilities, Teachers Coll. 
Contr. to Educ, No. 53, 1912. 

'^^ Whitley, M. T., An Empirical Study of Certain Tests for Individual 
Differences, New York, 1911. 

^^ Brown, W., Essentials of Mental Measurement, Cambridge, Eng., 
1911. 



4 THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 

creasing interest in individual psychology. Binet's 
worki= on the different psychological characteristics 
of indi'^dduals or groups of individuals led hun to apply 
tests for differential purposes. We have from hini 
and his co-workers, Henri and Simon, a long series of 
studies in which single tests or groups of tests are used 
for the analysis of individuals. This work culminated 
in the construction of a scale of tests for practical 
diagnostic purposes. He originated the idea of sys- 
tems of tests with age-gradations, which in turn has 
led to the idea of norms of performance in practical 
clinical work. Norms are demanded for comparative 
purposes. One normal standard is not enough for 
children, because every age must have its separate 
standard. The only means of measuring the mental 
retardation of a ten-year-old child is to compare his 
intelligence with that of normal cliildi'en of different 
ages or of many ten-year-old children. 

Various attempts have been made to estabUsh such 
a working basis with different sets of tests, but in most 
cases the investigators seem to have lost sight of their 
end in the desire to put their material to practical use. 
This very fact has resulted in many false conclusions 
and WTong judgments. No more striking example 
could be found than that of the Binet-Simon scale, 
itself. In the first place, the separate tests were not 
"tried out" with large enough groups of children, and, 
as a result, many were misplaced. In the second place, 
lack of a standard method of procedure has led to diffi- 
culty in the comparison of results of different workers. 

This lack of adequate standardization was felt im- 
mediately after the scale was put into use and led to 



^- Binet, A., Attention et Adaptation, L'aniu-c psychohgiquc, 6: 1S99, 
24S-404. Binet, A., et Henri, V., La Psychologie Individuelle, L'annee 
psychol, 2: 1S95-6, 411-465. 



INTRODUCTION O 

the re-standardization of the scale by Goddard." 
This was the starting point for a discussion of stand- 
ardization in general, and has given us the work of 
Kuhlman," Bobertagj^^ Stern/^ Terman,i^ Otis,^^ and 
others. All this work was done mainly from the point 
of view of the scale of mental measurement, and the 
discussion centers around the adequate placing of a 
test at a specific age. The appearance of other scales, 
such as those of Knox,!^ de Sanctis,2o Yerkes-Bridges,^! 
and Terman22 served still further to emphasize the 
problems of standardization. At the same time, the 
use of special tests devised by different workers and 
used by them in practical clinical work led to the neces- 
sity of norms in^rder to evaluate the performance of 
any individual. 

With this growing demand for age-norms appeared 
the elaborate work of Sylvester^^ with the Seguin 



1^ Goddard, H. H., Two Thousand Children Measin-ed by the Binet 
Measuring Scale of InteUigence, Fed. Sem., 18: 1911, 232-259. 

" Kuhlman, F., The Results of Grading Thirteen Hundred Feeble- 
minded Children with the Binet-Simon Tests, J. of Educ. Psych., 4: 
1913, 261-268. 

^^ Bobertag, O., Ueber InteUigenzpruefimgen, Zeitschr. f. ange- 
wandte Psychologie, 5: 1911, 105; and 6: 1912, 495. 

^^ Stern, W., The Psychological Methods of Testing Intelligence, Trs. 
by Whipple, Ed. Psych. Monographs, No. 13. 

^' Terman, L. M., and Childs, H. G. A Tentative Revision and 
Extension of the Binet-Simon Measuring Scale of InteUigence, J. of 
Educ. Psych., 3: 1912. 

1^ Otis, A., Some Logical Aspects of the Binet Scale, Psych. Rev., 23: 
1916, 129-152, 165-179. 

19 Knox, H. A. A Scale, Based on the Work at Ellis Island, for 
Estimating Mental Defect, J. of Amer. Medical Assoc, 62: 1914, 741- 
747. 

2" de Sanctis, S., Mental Development and the Measure of the 
Level of InteUigence, J. of Ed. Psych., 2: 1911, 498-507. 

2* Yerkes, R. M., Bridges, J. W., and Hardwick, R. S., A Point Scale 
for Measuring Mental Ability, Warwick and York, 1915. 

2^ Terman, L. M., The Measurement of Intelligence, Houghton, Mif- 
flin Company, 1916. 

^3 Sylvester, R. H., The Form-Board Test, Psych, Review Monographs, 
15: 1913. 



6 THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 

Form-Board, who with some fifteen himdred childien 
worked out very reUable norms. PiiitneF's'-^ revision 
of the Knox Cube Test and Wallin's'-^ norms for the 
Seguin Form-Board are further indications that the 
need for more reUable standards in intelhgence testing 
is bemg met. Other indications of the need for norms 
appears in tlie work of Sclunitt,-^- who arrived at tenta- 
tive norms for many of Healy's tests, and in the work 
of the Bureau of Investigation of the New York State 
Board of Cliarities.-' In the Latter stud}' the Picture 
Completion Test is inchided and reference to the results 
will be made in a later chapter. 

The task of standardization probably falls under 
two main heads, (1) the determination of a method of 
presentation and method of scoring, (2) the establish- 
ment of norms. Under the fii'st heading is mcluded a 
specific mode of procedm'e that will be conmion to aU 
mvestigators and likewise a specific method of record- 
ing and scormg results, so that the results from dift'er- 
ent workers may be compai*able. A change m method 
of procedm-e in giving a test may alter entirely the 
significance of the test. As TMiipple-^ has well said, 
''No detail in the setting of a test is too tri^'ial to be 
neglected. ... It is noteworthy that the lack of 
accordance between the results obtauied by difi'erent 
investigators in the use of what is ostensibly the same 
test almost invariably tm'ns out to be due to seemingly 



-^ Pintiier, R., The Standardization of Knox's Cube Test. Psych. 
Ecvieic, 2-J: 1915. 377-401. 

-^ Wallin. J. E. W.. Asje Norms of Psvclio-motor Capacity, J. ofEduc. 
Psi/ch., 7: 191G. 17-24." 

-^ Schmitt. C. Stimdardization of Tests for Defective Children, 
Psych. Bcvicw Monociraphs, 19: 1915. No. 3. 

='' New York State Board of Charities. Eleven Mental Tests Stan- 
darized, Eugenics and Social Welfare BuUetin, No. V. 1915. 

-« Whipple, G. M., A Manual'of Mental atid Physical Tests, Vol. I, 
p. 5. 



INTRODUCTION 7 

trivial variations in the method of administering the 
test." The second heading, the estabhshment of 
norms, includes two possibilities, either the establish- 
ing of average or median performances at each age, 
i. e., the so-called age-norms, or the determination of 
performances for any number of percentile groups at 
each age. The former is the method adopted by Syl- 
vester, Wallin, and Pintner in the articles mentioned 
above, while WooUey," in her work at the Bureau of 
Vocational Guidance at Cincinnati, has preferred the 
percentile method, according to which the child is 
compared with children of the same age. The age- 
norm assigns a mental age to a child; he is either at, 
above or below his chronological age. His performance 
is compared to the average performance of another 
age-group. For example, a ten-year-old child may be 
spoken of as equalling in a test the average performance 
of six-year-old children. This is the method made 
familiar by the Binet system of mental ages. The 
growing criticism of this method is based upon the 
theory underlying the growth of intelligence in gen- 
eral, whereby we know that growth of intelligence does 
not advance by equal stages corresponding to the equal 
stages of chronological growth. No harm is done so 
long as we keep strictly to mental ages, but confusion 
immediately arises when results are expressed in 
amounts of retardation as determined by the difference 
between the chronological and mental ages. Trying 
to avoid this has led to the Intelligence-Quotient 
method of Stern, the Coefficient of Intelligence of 

23 Woolley, H. T., and Fisher, C. R., Mental and Physical Measure- 
ments of Working Children, Psych. Review Monographs, 18: pp. 247. 
See also Woolley, H. T., A New Scale of Mental and Physical Measure- 
ments for Adolescents and Some of Its Uses, J. of Educ. Psych., 6: 
1915, 521-550. 



8 THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 

Yerkes, and the Percentile Method as suggested by 
Woolley. The last two methods are based upon a 
direct comparison of any performance with the per- 
formances of children of the same age. 

The percentile method allows the comparison to be 
made with groups of children of the same age, since 
the percentile scores give us the distribution of the 
ability of each age-group. It is this latter method 
that has been used in the computation of the results 
of this study. At the same time, the fifty percentile 
gives us the norm, or average performance, for each 
age, so that age-norms are obtained. It is the belief 
of the authors that ultimately the percentile method 
will prevail in standardization. The drawbacks of 
the method at present are that we require a large num- 
ber of cases at each age in order, with any degree of 
certainty, to mark off the percentile limits, and fiu*ther- 
more, we do not yet know what significance is to 
attached to a ten-percentile or twenty-percentile or 
any other percentile performance. It will not take 
long, however, for us to learn to think in terms of 
percentile abilities. 



CHAPTER II 

The Test 

This test was devised by Healy^ through the desire 
to secure one which would involve the principle of the 
Ebbinghaus Comhinationsmethode and at the same 
time ehminate the language factor. The Ebbinghaus 
Completion Method is now largely used for language 
tests and it is proving to be one of our best methods 
for measuring language ability.^ It seems also to be 
highly correlated with well-known tests of general 
intelligence. It seems reasonable to suppose that 
much the same sort of ability is required to complete a 
picture as to complete a sentence. In both cases the 
essential element is the noticing of something lacking 
in the general situation and the suppljdng of a missing 
part to complete the general scheme. In the Picture- 
Completion Test, however, the choice of a missing 
part is limited to the blocks supphed to the subject, 
whereas in the language-completion tests in common 
use the subject has the whole range of his vocabulary 
from which to supply the missing word. A direct 
analogy to the Picture-Completion Test would be a 
language-completion test in which the subject was 
supplied with a limited number of words from which 
he must select the word best suited to complete the 
sense of the sentence before him. 

The material consists of a picture, brightly colored, 
measuring 10 by 14 inches (see Figure 1). It repre- 



iHealy, W., A Pictorial Completion Test, Psych. Review, 21: 189- 
203, 1914; and Healy, W. and Fernald, G. M., Tests for Practical 
Mental Classification, Psych. Review Monographs, 13: 1911, No. 54. 

^Trabue, M. R., Completion Test Language Scales. Teachers 
CoUege, 1916. 

9 



10 



THE PICTUKE COMPLETION TEST 




FlGUBE 1 



THE TEST 11 

sents an outdoor, or barnyard scene in which ten 
simple activities are going on. There is no obvious 
connection between each activity, but each is of such 
a nature as to appeal to the chUdish imagination. A 
significant object necessary for the completion of any 
one of the activities is omitted and it is the task of the 
examinee to find the most appropriate object. For 
example, two boys are playing with a football, one has 
just kicked it into the air while the other is preparing 
to catch it. The significant object, the football, has 
been omitted and the blank space appears between 
the two boys. Or again, a boy is standing on a ladder 
plucking fruit from an apple tree and dropping it into 
a basket beneath. In this group the basket has been 
omitted. 

Besides the ten most appropriate blocks there are 
forty others from which to choose, ten of which are 
blank while the others bear objects. Each aperture 
is one inch square, and the blocks are so cut that any 
one will fit in any space. No indication of the correct 
solution is made by the background of the picture, 
which is all of the same color and the same for every 
block. Size, shape and color of every block, then, is 
identical, and it remains for the subject to meet the 
requirements of each situation by grasping its meaning. 
In this way it is possible to get some measure of the 
child's apperceptive ability, to see how well he is able 
to use his past experience in meeting new situations. 
As this very factor corresponds in the main to the 
definition of intelligence given by many writers, Hke 
Binet, Burt, Stern, and others, we should expect a 
high correlation with general ability. The test differs 
from the ordinary picture-puzzle tests inasmuch as it 
demands a choice on the part of the child. It calls 



12 THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 

for a choice reaction. There are fifty blocks from 
which to choose and the unfinished situation can be 
completed in a great many different ways. This gives 
us the possibility of measuring different degrees of 
adequacy in responding to the situation. 

Already a fair amount of work has been done with 
this test. Healy himself gives the results of some five- 
hundred cases, including the following groups: (1) 
110 children from a private school, (2) five unusually 
bright young children, (3) 248 juvenile delinquents, 
(4) 15 feeble-minded cases, (5) 95 Wellesley College 
students, (6) 33 psychopathic individuals, and (7) a 
group of unselected intelligent adults. These results, 
while valuable in studying various possible types of 
reaction, are not sufficiently representative for the 
establishment of norms. 

Healy says that the group of exceptionally bright 
young children did the test quite well. Three eight- 
year-olds were able to do the test in less than four 
minutes with a perfect score. This, he says, offers 
''most convincing proof of the validity of the test for 
naive minds." Healy presents a table of his 110 
normal cases arranged according to age and school 
grade, showing the range of total errors, the range of 
illogical errors and the range of time, as well as the 
median total errors and the median illogical errors. 
Because he has divided each age-group into sub-groups 
according to school grade, there are never more than 
14 individuals in any one group. The medians, there- 
fore, are of little value. We may say here that Healy 
divides his errors into two types, logical and illogical. 
He has selected somewhat arbitrarily ten moves which 
he calls logical errors and on this basis his evaluation 
of the performance is based. A totally different 



THE TEST 13 

method has been used in this study, and therefore the 
results are not comparable with his. 

The performances of his delinquents correlated well 
with their apparent mentahty. In speaking of the 
results obtained with the group of feeble-minded, the 
brightest members of the school at Vineland, Healy 
makes the following statement: ''The feeble-minded 
group, as seen under two conditions, tally well in their 
extremes only. Nearly all make bad failures. It is 
obvious that rare individuals among them have de- 
veloped the ability to apperceive such relationships as 
are demanded by this test, even though on other levels 
their mental equipment is demonstrably poor. This is 
as we, who observe the special abilities and disabilities 
of these mental defectives as well as normal persons, 
would expect. It is not to be anticipated that any 
single test can be evolved which will discriminate the 
feeble-minded." 

An interesting factor is presented in the inferiority 
of the performance of the Wellesley students when 
compared with the school children and the higher 
classes of delinquents. Here we find college students 
with a median of two total errors, while the median 
for both groups of children is one. The percentage of 
illogical errors is 64 in the Wellesley group, which is 
noticeable in comparison with 50 per cent, at the private 
school and approximately 36 per cent, with the de- 
linquents. These college records, which were secured 
by Eleanor Gamble, of Wellesley, seem to show that 
this sort of test may not be reliable when applied to 
adults whose more varied experience leads to an un- 
limited number of complex responses which could not 
be evaluated by the method of scoring used by Healy. 

The psychopathic cases tested displayed the ex- 
pected variabiUty, and Healy suggests the idea that 



14 THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 

the test might become of possible use in diagnosing 
the various types of insanity by observing the method 
of procedure and peculiar reactions displayed by such 
individuals. 

In concluding his article Healy says: ''We evidently 
have in our completion picture a test for ability pri- 
marily adapted to the child type of mind. Every 
detail of the meaning has proved to be understandable 
even by morons. The performance of naive indi- 
viduals of ordinarily good intelUgence above ten years 
of age should be better than in five minutes, and not 
more than one 'illogical' and two total errors should 
be made. A worse record than this should arouse 
suspicion of defect in mental ability." It is only in 
this way, therefore, that Healy has standardized the 
test. A presentation of our results worked out ac- 
cording to Healy's method is given in Chapter VIII. 

Work with the test has also been carried out by the 
New York State Board of Charities^ with different 
groups of subjects. In all, 659 cases were examined, 
but this included only 180 pubHc-school children; the 
others were from various corrective and protective 
institutions. Such results are interesting for compari- 
son, but not essential for piu-poses of standardization. 
A summary, nevertheless, may be given here. Prac- 
tically the same method of procedure was employed 
in this investigation as in Healy's, that is, the kind 
and number of errors were recorded and notes were 
made upon the method of work and the kind of reason- 
ing used by the subjects. Perhaps the most signifi- 
cant table for our purpose is that showing the results 
of the pubhc-school children. The following shows 



5 New York State Board of Charities, Eleven Mental Teats Standard- 
ized, Eugenics and Social Welfare Bulletin, No. V, 1915. 



THE TEST 15 

the average number of errors for thirty children at 
each age : 

Age 7 8 9 10 11 12 

Av.No.errors 7.2 5.4 3.3 3.8 3.0 3.8 

A comparison of these results with ours is given in 
Chapter VIII. Here it is indicated that Healy's 
norms are too high, since his standard allows only 
two errors at age 10. Here, however, we find the 
average number of errors at 10 years to be 3.8, and 
not even at 12 years does the average fall as low as 
two. 

These results and the results of our own cases indi- 
cate clearly the necessity for a more complete stand- 
ardization and a more critical study as to the best 
method of evaluating the performance. 



CHAPTER III 

The Method of Procedure and the Subjects 

Tested 

The Procedure 

As Healy says, this is a test easy of presentation. 
It appeals to the child's interest, which goes far toward 
eliminating such disturbing factors as fear and self- 
consciousness. The child likes to do it, and the whole 
performance is not so long that the task loses its charm 
and fascination. While the subject is at work the 
examiner has ample time to study his general attitude 
and to observe any lack of coordination or serious 
want of poise that may be evident. 

The picture should be placed directly in front of 
the child with the fifty blocks arranged haphazardly 
above it as sho^vn in Figure 1. It was found that a 
few words of explanation should precede the perform- 
ance. In this investigation the same instructions were 
given to every subject from the five-year through the 
adult group. Each was told to look at the picture 
carefully and see what was happening, or what the 
people were doing, or what activities were going on. 
Further, he was informed that any of the blocks was 
just the right size to fit in any of the spaces, but that, 
since there were more blocks than spaces, he must 
select the ones which seemed to him to be the very 
best with which to finish the pictiu-e. In order to 
make certain that the directions were fully compre- 
hended, questions were asked about one group until 
the situation was perfectly understood. Like Healy, 
we have taken for an example the wagon group as 
being one of the simplest of the ten and we have kept 
rather closely to his words. The examiner says to the 

16 



METHOD OF PROCEDURE 17 

child: ''Look at this picture and see what is happen- 
ing, look what the people are doing. You are to fill 
in these empty spaces so as to make the picture look 
right, so as to make the best sense. Any of these 
blocks up here will fit into any of these spaces. Choose 
those which seem to you the best, those which will 
make the best picture." Then, pointing to the wagon 
group, ''What is the man looking for? What is gone?" 
If the answer is "the wheel," then he says to the 
child: "That's fine. Find the wheel among the other 
blocks and put it in." If the correct response is not 
given, he prompts the child; if that is not successful, 
he explains to him more fully the situation and tells 
him to find the wheel and put it in. The correct 
answer is, however, generally forthcoming and the 
child is told: "Do the others in the same way as care- 
fully and as quickly as possible." The factor of speed 
is not emphasized, but it is always mentioned. When 
every space is filled and the subject looks up, or other- 
wise indicates that he has finished, the experimenter 
says: " Now look it over carefully. See if every block 
suits you. See if it is exactly as you want it and then 
tell me when you have finished." The time was taken 
when the child indicated he had finished and also after 
he had been allowed to make corrections. 

An exact record was kept of every move made by 
the examinee. Although the recording would seem at 
first somewhat complex, it is really quite simple. At 
the top of the record sheet were written the names of 
the nine spaces; the tenth was disregarded since it is 
used as an illustration. As each block is put in, its 
name is recorded under the proper heading unless it 
happens to be the right block, which is then denoted 
by a check mark. If changes are made, they, too, are, 
of course, recorded. If a change is made after the 



18 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 



examiner has told the child to look over the picture 
carefully, i. e., during the last phase of the test, then 
this is noted on the record blank by a horizontal line 
in^the space where the change is made. Under this 
horizontal line the change is recorded. A sample record 
appears thus: 



Name 


B. Window 


Dog 


Cat 


Football 


Hat 


Age and grade. . 


C. Wind. 


v 


D. Cat 
V 


Baseball 
V 


V 






Basket 


Log 


Chicken 


F. Bird 




Bucket 


V 


V 




S. Bird 




Cherries 






y 



This sample record is to be read as follows: The Cur- 
tain-Window block was put in the Broken- Window 
space; the Dog block, i. e., the right block, was put in 
the Dog space; the D. Cat (departing cat) block was 
put in the Cat space and this was later on changed 
for the right block; the Baseball block was put in the 
Football space and this was later changed for the 
Football block, i. e., the right block; the right block 
was put in the Hat space; the Bucket block was put 
in the Basket space and in the second phase of the 
test, when the child was given an opportunity to make 
changes, the Cherries block was substituted for the 
Bucket block in the Basket space; the Log and Chicken 
spaces were filled in correctly; the S. Bird (standing 
bird) block was put in the Flying-Bird space and in 
the second phase of the test changed for the right 
block. The two horizontal lines show us that the child 
made two changes in the second phase of the test. 



METHOD OF PROCEDURE 19 

In almost every respect this method is identical 
with that of Healy, with the exception that no record is 
made in this procedure of the order in which the spaces 
are filled. 

The Subjects 

In all, 1538 presumably normal individuals were 
tested. This number, we feel, should be fairly repre- 
sentative, and the results of an investigation with 
such a group should approach a normal distribution. 
The children who served as subjects were pupils in the 
Columbus public schools; the adults were in the main 
university students. 

In selecting the schools care was taken that they 
should lie in districts which would represent different 
social classes, in order that the children tested at each 
age should be representative of all children of that 
age. Two schools were in communities where the 
majority of the children came from the homes of pro- 
fessional and prosperous business men; one was in a 
lower middle class district, and a fourth in a part of 
the city where the majority of the children came from 
very poor families, and here, too, was found a colored 
and a foreign element. 

TABLE I. 

Number of Subjects Tested 
SCHOOLS 





Better 


Middle 


Poorer 






Age 


Class 


Class 


Class 


Additional 


Total 


5 


18 


2 







20 


6 


99 


17 


34 




150 


7 


84 


25 


41 




150 


8 


82 


41 


27 


2 


152 


9 


66 


36 


48 




150 


10 


68 


42 


40 




150 


11 


74 


41 


35 


5 


155 


12 


88 


35 


27 




150 


13 


109 


20 


21 




150 


14 


70 


18 


12 


9 


109 


15 


35 


8 


7 


2 


52 


16-18 


14 


2 


2 




18 


Ad. 








Total 


132 




1538 



20 THE PICTVRE COMPLETION TEST 

The ages of the subjects ranged from five to fifteen 
years, mchisive. The nimiber tested at each age is 
shown m Table I. The second cohuim shows the 
number of children in the better-class schools; the third 
colunm the number in the middle-class school, and 
the fourth column m the poorest school. The next 
colunm gives a few additional cases that were not used 
in the determination of the method of scoring, because 
they were collected after this part of the work was 
completed; they are included, however, in the distri- 
bution of scores for each age and thus enter into the 
determination of the medians and percentiles. The 
last colunm shows the total mmiber of indi^'iduals in 
each age-group. It will be noted that there are only 
eighteen cases between the ages of sixteen and eighteen. 
Since the number of these cases was so small, and since 
a great many of them were extremely retarded pupils 
in the grades, it was decided that they were not repre- 
sentative of any of these ages, and therefore their 
records have been omitted entirely in this work. This 
gives us a total of 1520 cases upon which the medians 
and percentiles are based. The small munber of 
cases at Age 5 makes the norms for this age somewhat 
less rehable. We may say here that the usual difficulty 
m secm-ing 1-1- and 15-year-old children was encoim- 
tei*ed. It was felt that the subjects at those ages 
found in the grade schools would probably be con- 
sidered retarded pupils. Consequently, permission 
was obtained to get an equal number at those ages 
from one of the jimior high schools in a good resi- 
dential section of the city. These children, being 
probably slightly accelerated, would tend to balance 
any possible retardation of those in the grades. An 
equal number of imseleoted children was tested at 
every age from six up to and including thirteen, which 
increases the rehabihty of comparisons between these 
ases. 



METHOD OF PROCEDURE 21 

The adults, as mentioned above, were mainly uni- 
versity students who had volunteered to act as ob- 
servers in a series of experiments, but the others were 
unselected, presumably normal persons who could be 
prevailed upon by the examiner to take part in the 
experiment with a fair amount of seriousness. As 
Healy has pointed out, this is not a test adapted to 
the adult mind. Not only is there evident that 
tendency toward lack of seriousness among adults 
when taking tests, and especially this kind of per- 
formance test, but also the simple nature of the picture 
calls forth from mature individuals all sorts of criti- 
cisms which never seem to trouble the child. The 
nature of the drawing, with its lack of perspective, 
and the somewhat exaggerated, though simple, situa- 
tions present difficulties and possibilities to the adult 
which sometimes make his performance little superior 
to the performance of the child. 

The conditions prevailing while this test was being 
given were practically ideal. The test was given to 
the children individually in a room where the examiner 
only was present. If a third person chanced to come 
in and the performance of the child seemed to be 
influenced in any way, that record was cast out. 
Each child was made to feel at ease, and without ex- 
ception, unless it was among the five-year-olds, the 
problem was attacked with interest and without self- 
consciousness. There seemed to be great demand in 
every grade to be allowed to be the next one to ''do 
the puzzle." 

With such a large number of cases and such a short 
task, it would have been impractical to have limited 
the giving of the test to any pa^rticular hour of the 
day. The experiment was, therefore, performed dur- 
ing the regular morning and afternoon school sessions. 



CHAPTER IV 



The Results 



As has been described, a complete record was taken 
of every move made by the subjects in completing the 
picture. A portion of the record sheet has been shown 
in the previous chapter. After working with the 
test, one becomes impressed with the inadequacy of 
the method of scoring used by Healy and other previous 
users of the test. Healy says: ''The errors are ob- 
viously of two kinds, rational and irrational." That 
may be perfectly true, but after considerable experi- 
mentation it was found that individuals differed de- 
cidedly as to what should be called logical and what 
illogical. It was decided, therefore, to abandon any 
attempt to determine a priori what moves are logical 
and what illogical and to base the method of scoring 
upon the frequency with which the moves were actually 
made. To this end, the first tabulation of the results 
was made on large sheets that showed the number of 
times any one position occurred. These numbers 
were then converted into percentages and transferred 
to other sheets to show the percentages for each pos- 
sible position at each age. A record of these per- 
centages is given in Tables II to XLII.^ 



^ In these tables and in the text the following abbreviations for the 
names of the blocks and spaces will be used: Broken Window=B. 
Wind; Ciurtained Window=C. Wind; FootbaU=F. Ball; Baseball=B. 
Ball; Flying Bird=F. Bird; Departing Cat=D. Cat; Sleeping Cat=S. 
Cat; Milk Bottle=M. Bottle; Sprinkling Can=S. Can. 

22 



THE RESULTS 



23 



TABLE II. 

Broken Window 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 

Dog 

Cat 

FootbaU. 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bird.. 


15.0 
5.0 


12.6 

5.3 

1.3 
1.3 
1.3 
0.7 


25.3 
6.7 
1.3 

0.7 
0.7 
1.3 
0.7 


24.0 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 

2.0 
2.0 


38.7 


44.6 
0.7 

0.7 


50.0 


52.6 
1.3 
0.7 


52.6 
0.7 


52.0 


60.0 


51.6 


39.9 
1.5 
0.2 
0.2 
0.4 
0.2 
0.5 
0.1 
0.3 



TABLE III. 
Dog 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 




2.0 


0.7 




















0.3 


Dog 


15.0 


20.0 


30.0 


50.6 


60.0 


70.0 


73.5 


86.0 


82.6 


80.0 


88.0 


78.0 


62.7 


Cat 


5.0 


4.6 


2.7 


2.0 






0.7 












1.1 


Football. 




4.0 


1.3 


0.7 


0.7 






0.7 


0.7 




2.0 




0.9 


Hat 


5.0 


2.0 


3.3 


4.0 




2.0 


2.6 








2.0 


1.1 


1.7 


Basket . . 




0.7 








0.7 


0.7 












0.2 


Log 




0.7 


0.7 




0.7 
















0.2 


Chicken . 




4.0 


3.3 




2.0 


0.7 


0.7 


1.3 










1.2 


F. Bird.. 






0.7 


0.7 


















0.1 



TABLE IV. 

Cat 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 




0.7 




















-■■■ 


0.1 


Dog 


5.0 


4.0 


2.7 


2.6 


2.7 


1.3 


1.3 


1.3 


?>.Z 


2.0 


2.0 


i.i 


2.4 


Cat 


10.0 


21.3 


25.3 


44.6 


47.4 


50.0 


62.0 


60.6 


58.7 


65.0 


60.0 


69.2 


49.1 


FootbaU. 




Z.o 


1.3 


0.7 


0.7 


0.7 




0.7 










0.7 


Hat 


5.0 


?>.?, 


5.3 


4.0 


2.0 


2.0 


2.6 


2.6 


2.7 


2.0 




1.1 


3.0 


Basket . . 




Z.3 


0.7 


0.7 




0.7 


0.7 












0.6 


Log 




1.3 


1.3 


1.3 


















0.4 


Chicken . 




5.3 


4.0 


4.6 


3.3 


4.6 


2.6 


2.0 


4.7 


2.0 


2.0 


2.2 


3.5 


F. Bird.. 






2.0 




0.7 






0.7 


0.7 








0.4 



24 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 



TABLE V. 

Foothall 



Age 


5 


6 


i-f 


s 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 




0.7 










0.7 












0.1 


Dog 




2.0 


0.7 






0.7 














0.3 


Cat 










0.7 
















0.1 


Football. 


10.0 


12.6 


22.6 


44.0 


52.0 


57.3 


53.4 


52.0 


64.6 


60.0 


70.0 


59.4 


47.7 


Hat 




2.0 


2.0 


0.7 


1.3 
















0.6 


Basket . . 




1.3 




1.3 


0.7 








0.7 


1.0 






0.4 


Log. .. .. 




1.3 


0.7 




0.7 
















0.3 


Chicken . 












0.7 














0.1 


F. Bird. . 


5.0 














0.7 










0.1 



TABLE VI. 
Hat 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


S 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


li 15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 




0.7 




0.7 


















0.1 


Dog 




2.6 


2.0 




1.3 
















0.6 


Cat 




1.3 


2.0 


0.7 








0.7 










0.4 


FootbaU. 




2.0 


2.7 


2.0 


















0.7 


Hat 


10.0 


18.7 


38.0 


46.6 


64.0 


68.6 


70.0 


72.6 


82.6 


88.0 


84.0 


80.3 


61.3 


Basket . . 






0.7 




















0.1 


Log 




0.7 






















0.1 


Chicken . 








0.7 


















0.1 


F. Bird. . 




1.3 


1.3 




















0.3 



TABLE YU. 
Basket 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


S 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 1 Total 


B. Wind. 






0.7 


0.7 


















0.1 


Dog 




1.3 


0.7 


1.3 


















0.3 


Cat 




4.6 


1.3 


0.7 




0.7 


0.7 




0.7 








0.9 


Football. 
Hat 




5.3 
2.6 


2.0 
1.3 


0.7 








1.3 


1.3 








1.0 
0.4 


Basket . . 


30.0 


37.4 


53.3 


64.0 


77.3 


78.6 


80.0 


84.0 


88.1 


87.0 


86.0 


85.8 


72.6 


Log 


5.0 




2.0 








0.7 












0.3 


Chicken . 


5.0 


5.3 


2.7 


1.3 


0.7 


0.7 








1.0 






1.3 


F. Bird.. 


15.0 


7.3 


3.3 


4.6! 2.0 


4.6 


0.7 


1.3 


1.3 


1.0 


4.0 


1.1 


3.0 



THE RESULTS 



25 



TABLE VIII. 

Log 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 






0.7 




















0.1 


Dog 




0.7 


0.7 




















0.1 


Cat 




1.3 


1.3 




0.7 
















0.3 


Football . 


5.0 
























0.1 


Hat 


5.0 


0.7 


1.3 




















0.3 


Basket . . 




























Log 


30.0 


32.0 


40.6 


68.0 


82.6 


88.6 


88.0 


92.0 


93.4 


93.0196.0 


95.6 


76.2 


Chicken . 




2.0 


0.7 




















0.3 


F. Bird.. 




2.6 






















0.3 



TABLE IX. 

Chicken 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 




1.3 


0.7 




















0.2 


Dog 






2.0 


0.7 


1.3 


1.3 


0.7 




0.7 








0.7 


Cat 


5.0 


3.3 


5.3 


4.0 


2.7 


2.0 


4.0 


1.3 


6.7 


4.0 


4.0 


1.1 


3.5 


FootbaU. 




0.7 


1.3 


1.3 


















0.3 


Hat 




2,.?, 


2.7 


4.6 


2.0 


1.3 


0.7 


0.7 


0.7 


1.0 




2.2 


1.8 


Basket . . 


5.0 


2.0 


2.7 


0.7 


0.7 








0.7 








0.8 


Log 


5.0 


4.0 


0.7 


0.7 


















0.6 


Chicken . 


45.0 


35.3 


53.3 


52.0 


68.7 


72.0 


80.7 


84.8 


84.6 


82.0 


88.0 


90.1 


69.5 


F. Bird.. 




2.6 


0.7 


1.3 


0.7 


0.7 


0.7 








2.0 




0.7 



TABLE X. 

Flying Bird 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 






1.3 




















0.1 


Dog 




0.7 


2.0 


0.7 




2.0 




1.3 


0.7 




2.0 


1.1 


0.9 


Cat 




4.6 


1.3 


2.0 


4.7 


2.6 


2.0 




1.3 


3.0 


4.0 




2.2 


FootbaU. 


5.0 


i.i 


2.7 




0.7 


2.0 


2.0 


0.7 


0.7 


1.0 


2.0 


1.1 


1.6 


Hat 


10.0 


2.0 


2.7 




4.7 


2.0 


1.3 


0.7 


1.3 








1.6 


Basket . . 




1.3 


1.3 


1.3 


















0.5 


Log 




2.0 




0.7 


















0.3 


Chicken . 




1.3 




0.7 


2.7 


2.0 


1.3 


2.0 


2.7 


4.0 






1.6 


F. Bird.. 


15.0 


18.7 


29.3 


38.7 


45.3 


46.0 


55.4 


52.0 


60.0 


66.0 


58.0 


73.6 


46.1 



26 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 



TABLE XI. 

Standing Bird 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


s 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 




0.7 






















0.1 


D02; 


5.0 


4.0 


1.3 


2.0 


2.0 


2.6 


2.0 


2.0 










1.7 


Cat 




1.3 


0.7 


2.6 


3.3 


4.6 




3.3 


0.7 


4.0 




1.1 


2.0 


Football . 




5.3 








1.3 




0.7 


0.7 








0.6 


Hat 




2.0 




1.3 


0.7 


0.7 


2.0 










1.1 


0.7 


Ba.^ket . . 




0.7 




1.3 


















0.2 


Los. 




1.3 




1.3 


















0.3 


Chicken . 


10.0 


5.3 


2.0 


4.0 


3.3 


2.6 


0.7 


2.6 


1.3 








2.2 


F. Bird.. 


10.0 


14.7 


25.3 


23.3 


32.7 


32.7 


36.0 


30.6 


27.4 


24.0 


26.0 


22.0 


26.9 



TABLE XII. 
Curtained Windoio 



Age 



5 


6 


7 


s 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


35.0 


47.3 
1.3 
1.3 

1.3 
0.7 
1.3 
0.7 


54.0 
1.3 

0.7 
1.3 

0.7 


5S.7 
0.7 


50.6 


49.3 


41.4 

0.7 
0.7 


42.6 


42.6 
0.7 


42.0 


38. 


44.0 






2.0 


2.0 


0.7 


0.7 


0.7 


1.3 


0.7 









B. Wind. 
Dog 

Cat 

Football. 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bii-d. . 



TABLE XIII. 
Departing Cat 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 




























Doe; 


5.0 


3.3 


3.3 


4.7 


5.3 


1.3 


4.0 


0.7 


2.7 


6.0 




1.1 


3.1 


Cat 




10.0 


9.4 


10.7 


10.7 


13.3 


7.3 


10.0 


S.7 


7.0 


10.0 


20.8 


10.5 


Football. 




1.3 


0.7 




















0.3 


Hat 


5.0 


4.6 




0.7 




0.7 


0.7 




0.7 




4.0 


1.1 


1.1 


Basket . . 






2.0 


1.3 


0.7 






1.3 










0.7 


L02: 




























Chicken . 




1.3 


2.7 


2.0 


3.3 


0.7 


1.3 


2.6 


0.7 


2.0 


2.0 


1.1 


1.7 


F. Bird. . 




1.3 


0.7 




















0.2 



THE RESULTS 



27 



TABLE XIV. 

Sleeping Cat 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 
Dog 

Cat 

FootbaU. 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bird.. 


5.0 
5.0 


1.3 
2.0 
1.3 
2.0 
0.7 
2.6 
3.3 


1.3 
1.3 
1.3 
0.7 

1.3 
1.3 


3.3 

1.3 
0.7 

0.7 


0.7 
1.3 

0.7 
0.7 


1.3 
4.0 

0.7 


0.7 
6.0 

0.7 
2.0 
0.7 


3.3 
0.7 


3.3 


2.0 


8.0 


1.1 


0.5 
3.0 
0.3 
0.3 
0.3 
0.4 
0.9 
0.3 



TABLE XV 

Baseball 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 

Dog 

Cat 

FootbaU. 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bird.. 


5.0 
20.0 


1.3 

0.7 

19.3 

0.7 

0.7 
0.7 


30.6 
1.3 
1.3 
0.7 

0.7 


0.7 

31.3 
1.3 

0.7 
0.7 


0.7 

32.0 
0.7 

0.7 


0.7 
29.3 


35.4 


39.4 
1.3 

1.3 


0.7 
0.7 

27.4 


2.0 

33.0 

1.0 


24.0 


33.0 


0.2 
0.5 
0.1 
30.6 
0.5 
0.2 
0.3 
0.2 
0.1 



TABLE XVL 

Baby 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


13 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 




2.6 


0.7 






0.7 


0.7 






1.0 






0.5 


Dog 


10.0 


5.3 


3.3 


5.3 


6.0 


2.6 


4.6 


2.0 


0.7 


1.0 




2.2 


3.4 


Cat 


10.0 


2.6 


5.3 


8.7 


6.7 


8.0 


6.7 


8.0 


7.3 


4.0 


6.0 


2.2 


6.2 


FootbaU. 




1.3 


4.0 


1.3 






0.7 






1.0 






0.8 


Hat 


5.0 


3.3 


3.3 


7.3 


6.7 


6.0 


5.3 


4.6 


0.7 


4.0 


2.0 


3.3 


4.5 


Basket . . 




2.6 




1.3 




2.0 


2.6 




0.7 




2.0 




1.0 


Log 




2.6 




1.3 






1.3 












0.5 


Chicken . 




3.3 


5.3 


2.6 


1.3 


3.3 






1.3 


1.0 




2.2 


1.9 


F. Bu-d. . 




0.7 


1.3 




















0.3 



28 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 



TABLE XVII. 

Hatchet 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


s 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 

Dog 

Cat 

Football. 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bird.. 


5.0 

5.0 

10.0 

10.0 

5.0 


2.0 

3.3 
4.6 
4.6 
16.0 
1.3 


2.7 

1.3 

2.7 

22.0 

2.0 


4.6 

1.3 
0.7 
1.3 
6.7 
4.0 


2.7 

0.7 
1.3 
7.3 
0.7 


0.7 

6.7 
4.0 


0.7 

0.7 
1.3 
5.3 
2.6 


1.3 

3.3 
0.7 


0.7 

0.7 
4.7 
0.7 


3.0 

4.0 
1.0 


2.0 


1.0 

3.3 
1.1 


l.S 

0.6 
0.9 

1.4 
8.0 
2.0 



TABLE XYIII. 

Mouse 



Age 



10 11 12 



13 li 15 Ad. 



B. Wind. 

Do? 

Cat 

Football. 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bird.. 





2.0 
























4.6 


5.3 


2.0 


2.7 


0.7 


1.3 


0.7 


2.7 


1.0 






5.0 


0.7 
0.7 


1.3 
1.3 


0.7 


0.7 


0.7 




0.7 




1.0 






5.0 


1.3 
2.0 
2.0 


4.0 
0.7 


4.0 
1.3 


1.3 
0.7 


4.0 


2.6 


5.3 


2.0 




6.0 


2.2 




0.7 


2.0 


5.3 


1.3 


2.0 


1.3 






2.0 




1.1 




1.3 




1.3 






0.7 


0.7 











TABLE XLS. 
Cage 



Age 



10 



11 



12 13 



14 



15 Ad. 



B. Wind. 

Dog 

Cat 

Football. 
Hat.... 
Basket . 
Log .... 
Chicken 
F. Bird. 





2.6 


2.0 


4.0 




0.7 


1.3 


2.6 


0.7 


1.0 




1.1 




2.6 


2.0 


1.3 


1.3 


2.0 


1.3 








2.0 






2.0 


5.8 


0.7 


0.7 


0.7 




0.7 




1.0 






5.0 


2.0 


0.7 


2.0 


1.3 


0.7 


1.3 


0.7 


1.3 










2.0 


2.0 


0.7 


0.7 


0.7 


0.7 


0.7 


2.0 


"1.0 






5.0 


2.0 
0.7 


0.7 

1.3 


0.7 


0.7 


0.7 


0.7 














5.3 


3.3 


4.0 


1.3 


1.3 


0.7 


0.7 










25.0 


30.0 


14.7 


15.3 


10.7 


7.3 


2.6 


4.6 


8.7 


3.0 


4.0 


3.3 



THE RESULTS 



29 



TABLE XX. 

Blank 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 


15.0 


7.3 


7.3 


6.0 


4.0 


0.7 


2.0 




2.0 


1.0 






3.2 


Dog 


15.0 


4.0 


o.2> 


3.3 


7.3 


0.7 


2,.3 


2.6 


0.7 


1.0 


4.0 


0.3 


3.2 


Cat 


5.0 


2.0 


3.3 


1.3 


2.0 


1.3 


1.3 


0.7 






2.0 




1.3 


Football . 


10.0 


2.0 


2.0 




2.0 


0.7 












1.1 


0.9 


Hat 


5.0 


1.3 


1.3 


1.3 


1.3 


1.3 


0.7 


2.0 


1.3 




2.0 


2.2 


1.4 


Basket . . 


5.0 




3.Z 


0.7 


1.3 


2.0 




1.3 




1.0 


2.0 


1.1 


1.2 


Log 


5.0 


0.7 


1.3 


i.2, 


2.7 


0.7 


0.7 


1.3 


0.7 


3.0 


2.0 




1.5 


Chicken . 


5.0 


0.7 


2.0 


1.3 


2.0 










1.0 


4.0 


1.1 


0.9 


F. Bu-d.. 


5.0 


2.0 


2.7 


2.0 




2.6 




0.7 




1.0 


2.0 




1.2 



TABLE XXI. 

Clock 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 
Dog 

Cat 

Football. 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bird.. 


10.0 
10.0 

5.0 


5.3 
2.6 
0.7 
3.3 
3.3 
0.7 
2.6 
0.7 
0.7 


2.0 

2.7 

1.3 

0.7 
2.0 
0.7 


0.7 
1.3 

2.0 

0.7 
0.7 


0.7 

0.7 
0.7 


1.3 
0.7 

0.7 


0.7 




1.3 


1.0 






1.2 
0.9 
0.2 
0.5 
0.4 
0.4 
0.5 
0.3 
0.1 



TABLE XXII. 

Sprinkling Can 



Age 


5 


6 


7 8 


9 10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 
Dog 

Cat 

Football . 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bird.. 


5.0 


0.7 

0.7 
1.3 
1.3 
1.3 
1.3 
2.6 


2.0 
1.3 
0.7 
2.0 


0.7 

2.6 


0.7 
0.7 


0.7 

0.7 


1.3 
0.7 


0.7 


0.7 


1.0 




1.1 


0.1 
0.3 
0.2 
0.1 
0.7 
0.4 
0.3 
0.6 



30 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 



TABLE XXIII. 

Glove 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 

Dog 

Cat 

FootbaU. 

Hat. 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bird.. 


5.0 


1.3 

0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 


0.7 
1.3 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 


0.7 
0.7 

0.7 


0.7 
0.7 
0.7 


0.7 
0.7 


0.7 


0.7 


0.7 
1.3 


2.0 




1.1 


0.1 
0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.5 
0.3 
0.3 
0.1 



TABLE XXIV. 

Bottle 



Age 



5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


5.0 


2.6 
























1.3 


0.7 


0.7 


0.7 




0.7 


0.7 


0.7 


1.0 






5.0 


4.0 


0.7 


0.7 




0.7 


0.7 












5.0 


2.0 


1.3 




0.7 
















5.0 


2.0 
0.7 
0.7 


0.7 


















1.1 


5.0 


0.7 


1.3 





















B. Wind 
Dog 

Cat 

FootbaU 
Hat.... 
Basket . 

Log 

Chicken 
F. Bird. 



TABLE XXV. 

MilklBottle 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 15 


Ad. 


Toral 


B. Wind. 
Dog 

Cat 

FootbaU. 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bird.. 


5.0 

5.0 

10.0 


3.3 

10.0 

1.3 

0.7 

0.7 

0.7 


0.7 
1.3 
9.4 
1.3 
2.0 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 


1.3 
1.3 
4.6 

0.7 
0.7 


0.7 

5.3 


0.7 
1.3 


0.7 
2.6 


5.3 


7.3 
0.7 


5.0 




4.4 


0.3 
0.7 
5.5 
0.3 
0.4 
0.1 
0.3 
0.2 
0.1 



THE RESULTS 



31 



TABLE XXVI. 

Cup 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 

Dog 

Cat 

Football . 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bh-d.. 


5.0 

15.0 
5.0 

5.0 


0.7 
2.0 
2.0 
0.7 
1.3 
2.0 
1.3 
0.7 


0.7 
0.7 
2.0 
0.7 

1.3 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 


2.0 
0.7 

0.7 


1.3 

0.7 
0.7 


0.7 
2.6 


0.7 


1.3 




1.0 






0.2 
0.3 
1.8 
0.1 
0.3 
0.3 
0.3 
0.4 
0.2 



TABLE XXVII. 

Shoe. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 

Dog 

Cat 

FootbaU. 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bird . . 


5.0 
5.0 


2.6 
1.3 

1.3 
2.0 
2.0 
0.7 


2.6 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 

1.3 


1.3 
0.7 

1.3 
0.7 


1.3 


2.0 
0.7 
0.7 


0.7 


0.7 


0.7 


1.0 






1.1 
0.4 
0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.3 
0.3 
0.1 



TABLE XXVIII. 

Flowers 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 

Dog 

Cat 

Football. 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bird . . 


5.0 
5.0 


0.7 
2.6 
2.0 
4.0 
2.0 

0.7 
2.0 


0.7 
2.7 
0.7 

2.0 

0.7 
1.3 
1.3 


0.7 
1.3 
1.3 

0.7 

0.7 

0.7 


1.3 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 


0.7 
1.3 
0.7 

0.7 


0.7 
0.7 

1.3 


0.7 


0.7 
0.7 


2.0 
1.0 

1.0 

1.0 






0.7 
1.1 
0.6 
0.5 
0.9 

0.2 
0.3 
0.1 



THE PICTVRK COMPLETION TEST 



TABLE XXIX. 



Asv 


5 


6 


7 


S 


9 


10 


11 


13 


IS 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 

Dog 

Cat 

FootK-ill. 

Hat 

Basket.. 

Lo^ 

Chiokon . 
F.Biivi.. 


5.0 

15.0 
5.0 
5.0 

5.0 


1.5 
3.3 
0.7 
2.6 
2.6 
3.3 
3.3 
4,6 


1.3 
2.0 
6.0 
2.0 
2.0 
2.0 
O.T 
1.3 


1.3 
0.7 
2-0 
1.3 
1.3 
3.3 
0.7 
0.7 


1.3 
2.0 
2.7 

0.7 
0.7 


0.7 
0.7 
1.3 


0.7 
0.7 

0.7 


0.7 
2.0 


0.7 
0.7 




2.0 


1.1 


0,2 
0.6 
0.7 
1,9 
1.2 
0.7 
0.9 
0.8 
0.3 



TABLE XXX. 



As« 


5 


6 


7 


s 


9 


10 


11 


13 


IS 


14 


IS 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 

Dog 

Cat 

Foi>tl«ll. 

Hat 

Basket.. 

Log 

Chvat-u , 
F. Bitvi.. 


5.0 


2.6 
2.6 

2.0 
2.6 

0.7 

2.6 


0.7 
0.7 
1.3 
0.7 
1.3 


1.2 
0.7 

2.0 
1.3 

0.7 


2.0 
0.7 
0.7 


0.7 


0.7 
0.7 
0.7 










2.2 


0.9 
0.4 
0.2 
0.5 
0.7 
0.1 
0.3 

0.3 



TABLE XXXI. 



As* 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


13 


IS 


t 

14 13 


Ad. 


Tot*l 


B. Wind. 

Dog 

C^t 

Football. 

Hat 

Basket.. 

Lo§: 

C3uek«i. 
F. Birvi. . 


5.0 

5.0 
5.0 


2.6 

1.3 
4-0 
0,7 
2.0i 
4.0 
0.7 


0.7 
0.7 

2.0 

1.3 
0.7 
0.7 


0.7 

2.0 
0.7 


0.7 
0.7 

0.7 


0.7 
0.7 
0.7 


0.7 




0.7 








0.1 
0.4 
0.4 
0-2 
0-7 
0-2 
0-3 
0-9 
0-3 



Til 10 liEHUl/rS 



33 



TABLIO XXXII. 

Knife. 



Ago 


5 





7 


8 


9 


10 


u 


12 


13 


14 


ir, 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 

Dog 

Cat 

Football . 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bird.. 


10.0 


0.7 

0.7 
0.7 
2.6 


0,7 
0.7 
2.0 

1.3 


0.7 

0.7 
0.7 
1.3 


0.7 
1..^ 


0.7 
0.7 


0.7 




0.7 








O.I 
0.1 
0.6 
O.l 
0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
0.2 



TABLE XXXIII. 

Fruit 



Ak<' 


5 


c. 


7 


K 





10 


1 1 


(li 


i.i 


11 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 

Dog 

Cat 

Football . 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bird.. 


.s.o 
.s.o 

5.0 


1.3 
0.7 
5.3 
^.3 
1.3 
2.0 
1.3 
1.3 
0.7 


0.7 
0.7 
2.7 
0.7 
2.0 
2.0 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 


1.3 

0.7 

2.0 


0.7 

0.7 

2.7 
1,3 


0.7 
1.3 
0,7 

0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 


0.7 

2.0 

0.7 


1.3 
0.7 

0.7 


1.3 
0.7 


1.0 
2,0 


2,0 


1.1 


0.3 
0.3 
2.1 
0.7 
0,4 
0.7 
0.3 
0.6 
0.2 



TABLE XXXIV. 

Cherries 



Ago 


5 


(I 


7 


H 


!» 


Id 


1 1 


13 


i.{ 


14 


m 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 




























Dog 




1.3 


2,0 


1.3 


0.7 


1.3 














0.7 


Cat 


5.0 


0,7 






















0.1 


Football. 




1.0 


4.0 


4,0 


2.7 


4,0 


3,3 




2.0 


4,0 


4.0 


3.3 


3.0 


Hat 




1.3 






















0.1 


Basket . . 


10.0 


15.3 


12,7 


14.7 


10,7 


9.3 


6,0 


10,0 


4.0 


■S.O 


8.0 


9.9 


10.0 


Log 






0.7 


















1.1 


0.1 


Chicken . 




2.6 


2.6 


6.7 


4.7 


3.3 


2.0 


1.3 


1.3 


1.0 






2.6 


F. Bird.. 


5.0 


3.3 


6.0 


4.6 


6.0 


3.3 


2.0 


5.3 


1.3 


5.0 


4,0 




4.0 



34 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 



TABLE XXXV. 

Stool 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 




1.3 










0.7 








2.0 




0.3 


Dog 


10.0 


3.3 


6.0 


1.3 


0.7 


2.6 


2.0 




0.7 




2.0 




1.9 


Cat 


5.0 


2.6 


5.3 


2.0 


2.0 


0.7 


1.3 


1.3 


1.3 


1.0 


4.0 




1.9 


FootbaU. 




0.7 




0.7 


















0.1 


Hat 




2.6 


0.7 


1.3 


0.7 


0.7 














0.6 


Basket . . 




2.0 


1.3 


0.7 


0.7 


1.3 


2.6 


1.3 


2.0 


1.0 






1.3 


Log 


5.0 


4.0 


7.3 


6.7 


3.3 


2.6 


0.7 


2.0 


1.3 








2.9 


Chicken . 


5.0 


1.3 




0.7 


















0.3 


F. Bird.. 




1.3 


0.7 




0.7 






1.3 










0.3 



TABLE XXXVI. 
Purse 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 




























Dog 








0.7 


















0.1 


Cat 




1.3 


1.3 






0.7 














0.3 


Football. 




1.3 


2.0 








0.7 












0.4 


Hat 


5.0 


5.3 


4.7 


2.6 


4.7 


4.0 


5.3 


2.0 


2.0 


2.0 




2.2 


3.5 


Basket . . 




























Log 


5.0 


0.7 


0.7 








0.7 












0.3 


Chicken . 




0.7 






















0.1 


F. Bu-d. . 




0.7 


0.7 




















0.1 



TABLE XXXVII. 

Books 



5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


5.0 


0.7 


0.7 




















10.0 


2.0 


0.7 


1.3 


1.3 




2.0 


0.7 


1.3 










1.3 


1.3 




0.7 


0.7 


0.7 




0.7 










1.3 


3.3 


1.3 


2.7 


0.7 




0.7 


1.3 


1.0 






5.0 


2.6 


2.0 


3.3 


0.7 


0.7 


0.7 


2.6 


0.7 










2.0 


1.3 


0.7 


0.7 




0.7 


0.7 


0.7 






1.1 


10.0 


1.3 




0.7 



















B. Wind 
Dog 

Cat 

FootbaU 
Hat.... 
Basket . 

Log 

Chicken 
F. Bird. 



THE RESULTS 



35 



TABLE XXXVIII. 

Bucket 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 

Dog 

Cat 

FootbaU. 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bird. . 


5.0 


0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
2.0 
4.0 
0.7 

2.6 


1.3 
1.3 

1.3 
4.7 
0.7 


2.6 
2.0 
0.7 

2.6 


0.7 
2.6 


0.7 
0.7 
2.0 


0.7 
0.7 
2.0 


0.7 
0.7 


0.7 
2.0 


1.0 


2.0 


2.2 


0.5 
0.5 
0.3 
0.6 
2.4 
0.1 

0.3 



TABLE XXXIX. 

Tie 



Age 5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 

Dog 

Cat 

FootbaU. 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bird.. 


5.0 
5.0 


1.3 

2.0 
0.7 
1.3 
1.3 
1.3 


2.0 
0.7 
0.7 
1.3 

0.7 


1.3 

2.6 

0.7 
0.7 


0.7 
0.7 
1.3 


1.3 
1.3 


2.0 


1.3 








1.1 


0.6 
0.2 
0.1 
1.0 
0.2 
0.2 
0.7 
0.1 



TABLE XL. 

Scissors 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 Ad. 


Total 


B. Wind. 

Dog 

Cat 

FootbaU. 

Hat 

Basket . . 

Log 

Chicken . 
F. Bird. . 


5.0 
5.0 
5.0 
5.0 
5.0 


0.7 
1.3 

0.7 
2.0 

0.7 


1.3 
0.7 

1.3 

0.7 


1.3 
1.3 
0.7 




0.7 














0.2 
0.3 
0.2 
0.1 
0.3 
0.2 
0.3 

0.1 



36 



THE rim^KE co\irij:TioN test 






A5» 


5 


6 


T 


S 


9 


10 


11 


13 


IS 14 


15 


Ad. 


Total 


B. Wiud. 


5.0 
























0.1 


l\^ 




























Ciit 










0.7 
















0.1 


Fi.xnball. 


5.0 


0.7 


0.7 








0.7 












0.3 


Ust 








1.3 


















0.1 


l\-j*kot . . 




0.7 


0.7 




















0.1 


1-^ 




1.3 


2.6 




0.7 
















OS 


Chu'kea . 








0.7 




0.7 


0.7 


0.7 










0.1 


K. Bini. . 






0.7 




















0.1 



TABLE XLII. 
At) Block 



AS9 


S 


e 


7 S 

1 


9 


10 


11 


la 


IS 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Tonkl 


B. Wiuii. 






0,7 


0,7 


0.7 


0.7 




2.0 


1.0 






1.1 


0.6 


T\^ 




0.7 


1.3 


0.7 




0.7 


0.7 










1.1 


0.5 


Cat 




























Vcxnball. 




























Hat 




0.7 


0.7 


















1.1 


0.2 


Rsjikot . . 














0.7 












0.1 


Lo^ 






1.3 


0.7 


















0.2 


Ohiok^a . 




0.7 






















0.1 


F. Bini. . 






0.7 




















0.1 



The tabltssi show the percentages for each one of the 
41 blocks for each a,ge-giv>up. The horizontal rows 
give the n;\me of the spaces and the vertical coliiiims 
the peiventages at each different age. Table II for 
the B. AYind. block shows eveiy position in which tliis 
block was placed and the percentage of cases in which 
it was placeii in such position at each age. The table 
is to be read as follows: the B. Wmd. block was placed 
in the B. Wmd. space {i. t\. the correet position) by 
15 per cent, of the five-year-olds, by 12.6 per cent of 



THE RESULTS 37 

the Hix-ycar-fjldH, Jjy 25.3 per cent of the seven-year- 
olds, and HO on. r>)nfJnijirij^ to Tjrifi I'wo, we note 
tliat the Ji. Wind, block was placed in the space for 
the do^ }jy 5.3 per cent of the Bix-year-fjldH, by 0.7 
per cent of thf; Heven-year-f;ldH, by 0.7 per cfjit of liie 
<;i^ht-year-oIdH, and ho on. Tha last vertical colunm 
h (jaded '^ Total" gives the results for the combination 
of all the aj^e-groupK and includes 1479 cases. The 
p(5rcenta|:i;es do not total 100 because only 9 of the 41 
blocks can be used. Some of the blocks, e. g., Scis- 
sors ("Table XLj were used very seldom. From these 
41 tables every possible type of move and the number 
of times such a move occurred can be seen. 

Tables II to X inclusive deal with the nine correct 
moves for the spaces. We note a fairly steady in- 
crease in the percentages from a^e to age. This 
means that as we proceed to the highfjr ages an in- 
creasingly greater number of subjects are putting the 
correct block in its correct space. There is obviously 
a better and better perforniiince at each age. Further- 
more, we note that the nine blocks in question are 
never inserted in any other space a greater number of 
times than they are inserted in the correct space. 
These nine blocks, therefore, liave been shown by 
observers at all ages to be better adapted to the space 
for which they were originiiJly designed than for any 
other space. In this particular, at least, the actual 
performance of children at all ages corroborates the 
original design of the test. There also seerrLS to be a 
greater amount of scattering in the lower than in the 
liigher ages. 

Coming now to Tables XI, XII, XIII, XV, XVI, 
XVII, XVIII, XIX, and XXV, we note a series of 
blocks tlia.t seem to be preferred for a specific space 
by a fairly large percentage at each age. For example, 



38 THE PICTtTRE COMPLETION TEST 

in Table XII the C. Wind, is put in the B. Wind, 
space by a fairly lai'ge peiTentage of observei*s at all 
ages. The same holds true of the S. Bird and Cherries 
in the F. Bird space, of the D. Cat in the Cat space, of 
the Baseball in the Football space, of the Baby in the Cat 
or Hat space, of the Hatchet in the Log space, of the 
Cage in the F. Bird space, of the M. Bottle in the Cat 
space, of the Piu"se in the Hat space, of the Cherries 
in the Basket space, of the Cat in the Chicken space 
and the Chicken in the Cat space. In some of these 
cases the percentag-e is very high, notably the C. Wind 
in the B. Wind space, indeed at some ages a larger 
percentage of subjects choose this block rather than 
the correct one. The percentage of the total number 
of subjects is 47.1 or a little below half. None of the 
other cases mentioned reaches such a high percentage. 
The reason for this grotip of cases is obvious from 
an inspection of the test. The C. Wind is put in the 
B. Wind, space, because the house is obviously lack- 
ing a window and the stibject has failed to note the 
activity of the boy who has thivwn a stone or the 
broken pieces of glass or the emraged man, or if he 
has noticed these things, he has failed to combine 
them into a stor}*. The D. Cat is put m the Cat space 
because the child is obviously offering milk to a cat 
but the subject has not noticed that there is a more 
appropriate cat than the one that is walking away. 
The substitution of the Baseball for the Football is again 
ob^iollS and not entirely illogical. The Baby in the 
Cat space is explicable by the common association of 
baby and milk, and in the Hat space by the idea that 
the girl is very much concerned about the crying baby. 
The Hatchet in the Log space is due to the association 
between hatchets and logs. The Cage in the F. 
Bird space seems merely due to the association be- 



THE RESULTS 39 

tween one cage and another. The girl may be trans- 
ferring the bird from one cage to the other. The 
M. Bottle for the Cat seems again to rest upon a mere 
association between milk and milk bottle. The S. 
bird in the F. Bird space is due to overlooking the fact 
that there is a more logical block (the F. Bird) for 
that space, and the Cherries in this same space is sup- 
posed to mean that the fruit is dropping from the 
tree, while the subject fails to notice the activity of 
the girl with the cage. The Purse in the Hat space 
is interpreted as meaning that the wind has blown 
the girl's purse away. The Cherries in the Basket 
space means that the subject fails to see that the tree 
is an apple tree. The Cat in the Chicken space is 
taken for a chicken frightened at a cat. The Chicken in 
the Cat space is interpreted as the girl feeding a chicken. 
These cases, therefore, are all easily understandable, 
and occur because the subject has failed to note that 
there is another block that would make a still better 
completion of the picture than the one he has chosen. 
If we were to make a classification of errors into logical 
and illogical ones, as Healy has suggested, it would 
seem to us that these cases are the ones to merit the 
former title. Healy gives nine moves as logical errors. 
We have discussed above the thirteen most frequent 
errors of our subjects and according to our point of 
view, these ought to be called the logical errors, if a 
classification into logical and illogical errors is to be 
made. Six of our ''logical" errors correspond to 
Healy's, namely the C. Wind, for the B. Wind., the 
BaselDall for the Football, the S. Bird for the F. Bird, 
the D. Cat for the Cat, the Purse for the Hat, and the 
Hatchet for the Log. We have eight ''logical" errors 
that are not mentioned by Healy. They are the Baby 



40 THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 

in the Cat and Hat spaces, the Cage in the F. Bird 
space, the M. Bottle and Chicken in the Cat space, 
the Cherries in the Basket and F. Bird spaces, and the 
Cat in the Chicken space. Two of Healy's logical 
errors do not occur in our list of the 61 most frequent 
moves to be discussed later, and these are the Baby in 
the Basket space — a move made by but one per cent, 
of the total, i. e., by only 15 of 1479 people; the Mouse 
in the Cat space, which occurs only in 0.54 per cent 
of the total, i. e., 8 cases. These two so-called logical 
moves evidently did not seem logical to our subjects. 
These do not appear at all in our list of common moves, 
since the number who make these moves is in every 
case less than 22, or 1.5 per cent of all the subjects 
tested. They therefore do not warrant any score, ac- 
cording to our method (see Chapter V, The Determin- 
ation of the Scores). 

The rest of the blocks are inserted in the spaces so 
seldom as not to warrant special consideration. In 
looking through Tables II to XLII it will be noted 
that most of these scattered cases tend to occur in 
the lower ages. 

Changing slightly our point of view, we may now 
examine Figures 2 to 10. These graphs show the 
percentage of responses at each age for the nine spaces, 
and the curves denote the blocks that were most com- 
monly inserted into these spaces. The sohd line in 
each case represents the block that was originally 
designed for the space. For example. Figure 7 shows 
the three most common responses to the Basket space. 
The solid hne shows that in this space the correct block, 
i. e., the Basket, was put in the Basket space by 30 per 
cent of the five-year-olds, by 37 per cent of the six- 
year-olds, and so on. Further that the Cherries block 



THE RESULTS 



41 




Figure 2 



42 



TUK ruM'i uv ooMrivnoN rvsr 



• ■*•*•*•.•■•«««■»■'■»■«•■•«■■»•«•»• 



T>- 






•i^*!- 



^s, ' ■ ; 




-^cv^ 



y-.-^"-"^ 



4\ 



- -e^*'^ 



f -■■■ 

i . 












iV 




V >::. 



FlGTifRlS S 



THE RESULTS 



43 



! i i 

" ?r 

• rh 

■ " ^ /■ ■ : 

■ ,-,.. /\/ ■" 

■ i^t- - /■ ■^"-../ ^^ - 

5o- y • 

■. (i- / - - 1 ■■ u\ 'j 

- gis- i — j,(:.r ^ 

/ 1 

- I 

/ / 

-f-;.- .--.; )■ ■ f 

'-^'■!\y' - -'- "TXH^- -^-- 

... ,(. . ■ . , .... 


Afe: 1. ) B ' /t/ /' /I f \-\ If i\i 



Fiouiuo 4 



44 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 




Figure 5 



THE RESULTS 



45 




Figure 6 



46 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 




FiGUEE 7 



THE RESULTS 



47 




Figure 8 



48 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 




Figure 9 



THE RESULTS 



49 



?^TrS$ ::::::;:;:::::;: :::::::::::::::::::::;::::::± 

4- -J r X X 

Mil 1 1 III il 1 IM 


^liiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^^^^^^l M 

x:g£xx: + :::+::::v:: = ;:4 xx:::;;::^:|f:=3 + :ixx: + x 


X ± xxxxxxxxxx: + + :;;±:: 

x:) ;:+:::: f- xxx: + xx: + :;;-;:s^|jxxxxxxx 


xxuxxxxx:^xxx;[:=!: = ^ixx:*xxxx: x 

EE|Ex:i|EE:^^EEE:||xE|EExEEEpiEExExxEEExS:SEpE± 

xxxx^x-x^::::::;^::::::::::::x ^-; -XX-J 




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Figure 10 



50 TH¥J PK^n'KK OOMFl.VTION TF-S^T 

vbt\>ken liuo'> ny;v$ put in the Ba:>kot spnco by 10 per 
tvnt of the tivt^yeiu^old:*. by 15 per cent of the idx- 
YOiVtH^his, by 12 j>er eeixt of the sjeveix-yearH^lds. awd 
!«>^^ on. Ai\d further. th;U the t]\\\\i iwoj^t eon\n\ou 
resi^poni^e that \y;\s uuuie to this space was* the msertiou 
of the Bucket block i^dot m\d das^h Une\ Nvhich oeciinwi 
iu 4.5 per ivnt of the s\x-year-<>Ui$. o per cent of tlie 
s^even-yeivr-old?*. -.5 per cent of the eight -year-olds. 
and so ai\. 

ij^mik^rly Figmv - shows the thr^v blocks n\^>st 
eoinnxonl^' insert t\i in tl\e B. ^^'ind. space, namely" the 
B. Wind., the C. Winii., and a blank bh>ck. Note 
that blank refers to a bUx»k which has no picturt^ on 
it, Thert^ a.iv 10 blank blocks as can be sivn fron\ 
the picture on Figure 1. 

All the other gn\phs art^ to be read in the s.'vu\e wa> . 
In general, the cv^rivct block for the space is distinct 1> 
aKwe all the other eurvess. Indeed, in most cases 
the jvrcentagvs for the other rt>spoi\ses :vre so low as 
to Iv ivlatively iixsigniticant \,set^ Figuivs o. 0. and in 
particular"^. Three graphs differ deeideiilv from this 
gt^neral tendency, in that the curve for the cv^rrect 
block falls Wlow SvMue one of the other curves at some 
agesi. This is the ca;se in Figures? 2, 5. and 10. It is 
mv.^t marktxi in Figun^ 2. whert^ the curve for the C. 
Wind. rx:^mtuns .alxne the B. Wind, curve at .-Vges 5 
to 10, inclusive. This means that at thesse agess it is 
more con\nioi\ for the observer to insert the C. Wind, 
rather than the B. Wind. It nuvrks this sj>ace out as 
being detinitely* the most difficult, but it does not 
pn>ve that the C Wind, is really the more logical 
block. This question was nvisoii after the test had 
been completed by a;sking a great nmnber ol the sub- 
jects who m.sde this err\>r to state which block was the 



TIIK REHfJLTH 61 

bettor, tho C. Wind, or the H. Wind. Almost invari- 
ably the H. Wind, wan choson. The ability to put 
in tho ri^ht block, tho B. Wind, .shows an almost 
steady increase from six to fifteen years. Figure 5 
shows that at Ages 5, f>, and 7 tho Iias(;ball is chosen 
more of t;en than tho Football, i^'iguro 10 shows that 
at Ages 5 and tho Cage is chosen more often than 
the correct block. In the determination of the scores 
later on, it will bo noted that tho 1>. Wind, in tho B. 
Wind, space is the hardest niove. 

The interesting f(;ature about the curves for the 
correct blocks is tiiat all sliow a distinct tendency to 
rise from the lower to the higher ages. Tho actual 
performances of the subjects go to show that the 
blocks as originally dfjsignod are best adapted to the 
spaces they were intended to fill. It is added evidence 
of the excellence of the test. Wo must keep this fact 
in mind when wo raise tho qiiostion of scoring, for 
these moves should obviously receive tho highest 
scores in any method of scoring. 



CHAPTER V 

The Determination of the Scores 
Percentage Distribution 

The total group of subjects tested was made the 
basis for the determination of the scores. Table 
XLIII shows the percentage distribution of the total 
number of 1479 cases used for the determination of 
the scores. The vertical column gives the name of 
the block and the horizontal row the name of the 
space. There are nine spaces in the horizontal rows 
and 41 blocks along the vertical colunms. The table 
is to be read as follows: the B. Wind, space (first 
horizontal row) was filled in by the B. Wind, block 
by 39.9 per cent of the subjects (upper figure) and this 
move was given a score of 100; the B. Wind, space 
(continuing along the row) was filled in by the Dog 
block by 0.3 per cent of the subjects and received a 
score of 0.2, and so on. Passing to the next row we 
find that the Dog space was filled in by the Dog block 
by 62.7 per cent of the total niunber of individuals 
and was given a score of 63.7; next that the Cat was 
put in the Dog space by 2.4 per cent, of the subjects 
and was given a score of 1.6, and so forth. 

In deternmiing these scores, an examination of the 
nine correct moves was made first. This shows that 
the B. Wind, in the B. Wind, was the hardest, because 
the fewest subjects were able to do it; it was given a 
score of 100. The other eight correct moves were 
given scores in inverse proportion to the percentage of 
cases recorded. If 39.9 per cent are able to put the 
B. Wind, in the B. Wind, space and receive a score of 
100, then 62.7 per cent who put the Dog block in the 

52 



DETERMINATION OF SCORES 



53 



TABLE XLIII. 

Disiribution of Total Number Tested 
Percentages and Scoees 



•6 














a 






a 








^ 


?? 




o 


■g 


S 


60 






ci 


o 


c8 


cS 


O 


ri 


Q 


o 


fe 


W 


fQ 


>^ 



B. Wind.— 

Per Cent. 

Score 

Dog— 

Per Cent. 

Score 

Cat— 

Per Cent. 

Score 

FootbaU- 

Per Cent. 

Score 

Hat— 

Per Cent.. 

Score. . 
Basket — ■ 

Per Cent.. 

Score. . 
Log— 

Per Cent.. 

Score 

Chicken — • 

Per Cent. 

Score 

F. Bird- 

Per Cent., 

Score. . 



39.9 
100 

1.5 
1.0 

0.2 
0.2 

0.2 
0.2 

0.4 
0.4 

0.2 
0.2 

0.5 
0.5 

0.07 



0.3 
0.2 



0.3 
0.2 

62.7 
63.7 

1.1 
0.8 

0.9 
0.6 

1.7 
1.2 

0.2 
0.2 

0.2 
0.2 

1.2 

0.8 

0.1 
0.07 



0.07 



2.4 
1.6 

49.1 
81.3 

0.7 
0.5 

3.0 
2.0 

0.6 
0.4 

0.4 
0.4 

3.5 
2.4 

0.4 
0.4 



0.07 



07 



0.14 
0.07 

0.6 
0.4 

0.4 
0.3 

0.7 
0.5 

61.3 
65.2 

0.07 
0.07 
0.07 



0.3 
0.2 



0.07 



0.1 
0.07 

0.3 
0.2 

0.07 



0.3 
0.2 



76.2 
52.4 

0.3 
0.2 

0.3 
0.2 



0.2 
0.15 

0.7 
0.5 

3.5 
2.4 

0.3 
0.2 

1.8 
1.2 

0.8 
0.6 

0.6 
0.4 

69.5 

57.5 

0.7 
0.5 



0.14 
0.07 

0.9 
0.6 

2.2 
1.5 

1.6 
1.0 

1.6 
1.0 

0.5 
0.3 

0.3 
0.2 

1.6 
1.0 

46.1 
86.6 



u 



Tim WCTVKIi Oxn- 



.^N 



■sr 



TASLE XLIlI~(CV«\tini)^ 



1 \ VWi~ 

{^NVtXV 

jSww* 

^\voe> 

i!?V\Vt* 

!^N»r^ 

1a^ - 

$<\V(V 

ijVsx* 

S^X^ 




4ia 

0.4 



O.QII 
0.W 



0.3 
O.W 



5.1 

lO.s^ 

T.2 

0.3 
0.2 

i.i 

o.s 

O.T 
0.3 



O.l 

o.org 

o.i 
o.ort 

0.S 
0.3 



l.T 

0.3 
0.1 



0.3 
0.3 

3.0 
2.0 

0.3 [30.«» 




0.2 



0.3 
0.3 

o.or 



o.i 

0.3 
0.2 

0.3 



0.4 
0.3 

0.5 
0.6 



0.2 



0.3 
0.3 

3.4 

2.3 

l>.2 
4.3 

0.$ 
0.3 

4.5 
3.1 

l.O 
0.1 



.3 0.3 

.2 0.3 

.2 l.» 

.1 1.3 



OsOr 



0.3 
0.2 



DETJCI(,MINA'I'I<>N Ol'' H(J(>JIEB 



'I'M'.ij'; xiJii f<;'.iii,uitj<:<ij 



M. WiiKl. 

DoK— 

PcrCcriL 

Hcora 

Cat— 

Vc.rCAid.. 

I''()Ol,h;UI • 

\'i;,(Uii\\... 

Hcoro 

Hat/— 

\'i'r(U-id. 

HcA>n;.... 

Vuv(U:i>\... 

Hcofc. . . . 
Log— 

Por(;.:iit,. 

Soon;, . . . 
d»i(;lu;n 

I'ci (U:i\i,. 

H(;(»r<!. . . . 
I''. liini • 

(Score. , . . 



•-I 


'j 


II 

y. 





^ 


:>. 


1 


OS 


', 


4 


'. 


4 


0.4 


0/; 


0.5 


0.3 


0.2 


0.1 


0,07 



()V 



.'. 

■/ 

0.2 
0.1 

1 
0.07 

0.7 
0.5 

0.4 
0.4 

.i 
0.2 

0,6 
0.4 



07 



•> 
0,2 

6 
4 

0.7 
O.S 

o.s 

0. 5 

0.,< 
0.3 

0.07 



f).l 
0.07 

O.i 
0.2 



5 
2 

7 
0,'i 

.S..S 
.'5.H 

'. 

2 

0.4 
0,4 

0.07 



0.5 
0,2 

0,2 
0.1 

0,07 



I 1 

H 

0,4 
O.i 

1 
0,07 

0,.3 
0.2 

u^ 

4 

O.'i 
0.2 

0.3 
0.2 

0.07 



7 

O.S 

1 I 

O.K 

0.6 
0.4 

O.S 
0.4 

0.0 
0.6 



0.2 
0.2 

0.3 
0.2 

0.4 
0.3 



2 
0.1 

6 
4 

0.7 
0.4 

1.9 

13 

1.2 
0.8 

7 
O.S 


0.6 

O.H 
0.6 

0,3 
0,2 



0,07 



07 



0.4 
0,3 

0,4 
0,2 

0.2 

0.2 

7 
4 

0.2 
0.2 

0.3 
0,2 

0,0 
0,6 

0.3 
0.2 



56 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 



TABLE XLIII— (Continued) 



















<D 




42 




."a 
a 


1 


1 


o 




1 


W 


ta 


o 


m 


n 


PL< 



B, Wind.— 

Per Cent.. 

Score 

Dog— 

Percent.. 

Score 

Cat— 

Percent.. 

Score 

FootbaU- 

Percent.. 

Score 

Hat— 

Per Cent.. 

Score. 

Basket — ■ 

Per Cent.. 

Score 

Log— 

Per Cent.. 

Score 

Chicken — • 

Percent.. 

Score 

F. Bird— 

Per Cent.. 

Score 



0.07 
0.07 



0.6 
0.4 

0.1 
0.07 

0.07 



0.3 
0.2 

0.6 
0.4 

0.2 
0.2 



0.3 
0.2 

0.3 
0.2 

2.1 
1.4 

0.7 
0.5 

0.4 
0.3 

0.7 
0.5 

0.3 
0.2 

0.6 
0.4 

0.2 
0.2 



0.7 
0.4 

0.1 
0.07 

3.0 
2.0 

0.1 
0.07 

10.0 
6.8 

0.1 
0.07 

2.6 

1.8 

4.0 

2.7 



0.3 
0.2 

1.9 
1.3 

1.9 
1.3 

0.1 
0.07 

0.6 
0.4 

1.3 
0.9 

2.9 
2.0 

0.3 
0.2 

0.3 
0.2 



0.5 
0.4 

0.5 
0.4 

0.3 
0.2 

0.6 
0.4 

2.4 
1.6 

0.1 
0.07 



0.3 
0.2 



0.07 



0.3 
0.2 

1.1 
0.8 

0.5 
0.3 

1.2 
0.8 

1.5 
1.0 

0.6 
0.4 

0.1 
0.07 

0.3 
0.2 

0.07 



0.6 
0.4 

0.2 
0.2 

0.1 
0.07 

1.0 
0.7 

0.2 
0.2 

0.2 
0.2 

0.7 
0.4 

0.1 
0.07 



2 

1 


0.07 


3 
2 




2 

2 


0.07 


07 


0.3 
0.2 


3 
2 


0.1 
0.07 


2 
2 


0.1 
0.07 


3 
2 


0.5 
0.4 




0.1 
0.07 


1 

07 


0.1 
0.07 



0.6 
0.4 

0.5 
0.4 



0.2 
0.2 

0.07 



0.2 
0.2 

0.07 
0.07 



DETERMINATION OF SCORES 57 

Dog space should receive a pro rata score of 64 (62.7: 
39.9 = 100: 64), and so on for the nine correct blocks. 
The easiest of these nine moves is the Log in the Log 
space, since the largest proportion of successes, 76.2 
per cent, is with this move. 

Now in regard to the other moves made, which we 
may call errors, it is obvious that the most pardonable 
error is the one made by the greatest number of people. 
We might term such an error the ''most logical" 
error, meaning by ''logical" that it occurs most 
frequently. Therefore all the other moves merit 
scores in proportion to the number of people making 
the move. The greater the frequency of the move, 
the higher the score. We cannot, however, allow any 
of these so-called errors to exceed the score of any of 
the correct moves, hence all of them must fall below 
a score of 52, the score for the easiest correct move. 
The relative merit of these errors can be determined, 
then, by using 52 as a starting point. The greater 
the frequency of the move the larger the score. If 76.2 
per cent (Log in Log) is equal to a score of 52, then 
by direct proportion, 47.1 per cent (C. Wind, in B. 
Wind.) is equal to a score of 32. These scores are 
all given in Table XLIII. The second figure, the figure 
below the percentage, denotes the score in each case. 

For practical purposes the scores recorded in the 
table were needlessly fine, so the decimals were dropped 
and the nearest integer was taken. Neglecting all 
scores below 1.0, we arrive at the scores given in Table 
XLIV. 

Sixty-one moves have been found to merit some 
score by this procedure. To make the lowest score 1 
is, of course, purely an arbitrary procedure. It would 
be perfectly feasible to go beyond this and include 



58 



THE PICTUKE COMPLETION TEST 



TABLE XLIV. 

(Scores 



B. WIND. 

B. Wind 100 

C. Wind 32 

Blank 2 

Cage 1 

DOG 

Dog 64 

Baby 2 

Blank 2 

B. Wind 1 

Cat 2 

D. Cat 2 

Hatchet 1 

Mouse 1 

S. Bird 1 

Stool. 1 

LOG 

Log 52 

Blank. 1 

Hatchet 6 

Stool 2 

BASIvET 

Basket 55 

Bucket 2 

Cherries 7 



CAT 

Cat SI 

Baby 4 

Chicken 2 

Cup 1 

D. Cat 7 

Fruit 1 

M. Bottle 4 

F. Bird 2 

S. Cat 2 

S. Bird 1 

Stool 1 

FOOTBALL 

FootbaU 84 

BasebaU 21 

Cherries 2 

F. Bird. 1 

Pumpkin 1 

F. BIRD 

F. Bird 87 

Basket 2 

Cage 7 

CherrievS 3 

S. Bird 18 



HAT 



Hat 

Baby. . . , 
Books. . , 

Cat 

Chicken. 

Dog 

F. Bird. 



... 65 

... 3 

... 1 

... 2 

... 1 

... 1 

... 1 

Mouse 2 

Purse 3 

CHICIvEN 

Chicken 58 

Baby 1 

Cat 2 

Cherries 2 

Cage 

D. Cat 

F. Bird 

Hatchet 

Mouse 

S. Bird 2 



DETERMINATION OF SCORES 59 

more cases or to stop before this and include fewer 
cases. A score of 1 denotes that from about 1.5 to 
2.2 per cent made this move. It seemed, from exam- 
ination of the moves which have been credited, that 
ahnost all of them had some degree of justification, at 
least such as would warrant a small amount of credit. 
If we were to discard all scores below 2, many moves 
that seem logical would have no score attached to them, 
such for example as the Pumpkin in the Football space, 
the Baby, the D. Cat, the F. Bird, the Hatchet, or 
the Mouse in the Chicken space and so on. Most of 
these seem to warrant at least the small score of 1. 
The most illogical ones that receive a score of 1 by 
this method seem to be the Hatchet and the Stool in 
the Dog space, and the Fruit and the Stool in the Cat 
space. The B. Wind, in the Dog space seems at first 
sight absurd, but a questioning of many children who 
made this move elicited the information that the B. 
Wind, was taken for a large spider or other monster 
from which the boy was fleeing. In view of such 
explanations by children, it seemed to be wisest to 
keep to the scores determined objectively by fre- 
quency of move. Table XLIV, which gives the scores, 
is therefore the criterion we have used in scoring the 
results. It is to be read as follows: The B. Wind, block 
put into the B. Wind, space is scored 100; the C. Wind, 
block in the B. Wind, space is scored 32, and so on. No 
score is allowed for any move not found in this table. 

Correlations 

The method of determining the scores adopted and 
described above is based on the pooled results of all 
ages. It will be remembered that the performances 
of all the tested individuals were combined and the 



60 THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 

frequency of the position of any block in any of the 
squares was noted. Upon these frequencies the scores 
were allotted. That is to say, the method of scoring 
is based entirely upon what is actually done by the 
subjects. The performance of the subject is a measure 
of the ease or difficulty of any position, and this in turn 
determines the value allotted to that particular move. 

Now, in view of the fact that the number of tested 
individuals is not constant at each age, the objection 
may be raised that any age possessing a proportion- 
ately larger number of subjects might influence unduly 
the scoring values. This is the first point that calls for a 
correlation between the relative ease or difficulty of each 
move at each age and the same move for the total group. 

Another and more important question also demands 
this kind of a correlation. If the type of performance, 
i. e., the relative ease or difficulty of the various moves, 
is radically and characteristically different at any one 
age or group of ages from the type of performance 
common to the other ages, then the method of scoring 
as determined by the total of all tested may be imfair 
to that age or group of ages, since the method of scor- 
ing is supposed to be determined by what the subjects 
actually do. If, for example, the relative ease and 
difficulty of the various moves for Ages 6 and 7 were 
to vary from the relative ease and difficulty for the 
other ages, then the scoring values as determined by 
the total tested would be unfair to Ages 6 and 7, 
meaning by unfair that they would not be based upon 
what six- and seven-year-olds actually find to be easy 
or difficult, but upon what a group of individuals, of 
which the six- and seven-year-olds foim a small num- 
ber, find to be easy or difficult. In other words, if 
any age or age-group were to deviate in this respect 



DETERMINATION OF SCORES 61 

from the total group, that age-group would be scored 
by values obtained from other sources. Such a method 
of scoring would be perfectly legitimate and defensible. 
In fact, the best possible move for the nine correct 
squares is determined by such a method. And in 
regard to the other moves, excluding the nine best 
possible ones, it would have been entirely feasible to 
have decided upon a method of scoring based upon the 
performances of a select group of adults. This method 
would imply that such a group of adults makes moves 
that are the most logical or the least illogical. This 
method was not adopted since it was thought that 
the child's performance might differ so radically from 
the adult's as to make a method of scoring derived 
from adults' performances artificial when applied to 
children. And further, a practical consideration enters 
in, namely that a select gioup of adults would make so 
few illogical moves as to limit the range of scores very 
materially. As a matter of fact, the total number of 
moves, other than the nine correct ones, chosen by the 
adults amounts to 54. Since there are 369 possible 
moves in addition to the nine correct ones, 54 is a 
relatively small number. 

To arrive at these correlations, the rank according 
to difficulty of the 61 moves which have been allowed 
a scoring value was taken. These 61 moves are the 
most frequent, as determined by the total number of 
individuals tested. It was not deemed feasible to 
work out correlations for all the possible 369 moves; 
most of them are seldom met v/ith. These 61 most 
common moves will give us a sufficient indication of 
the correlation between the total group and the differ- 
ent age-groups. It is to be noted, however, that this 
method of ranking excludes in certain age-groups 



62 THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 

some moves which do not appear in the total group 
and which would have ranked higher than a few of 
the less frequently chosen moves. To this slight 
extent, therefore, our table of ranks is incomplete. 
Table XLV shows the ranking in order of frequency 
for the 61 moves, for the total group tested, and then 
for each group separately. From this table Figures 
11, 12, and 13 have been constructed. These three 
graphs show the ranking at each age of the twelve 
most frequent moves as determined by the total 
group. Some idea of the similarity in ranking for the 
different age groups can be obtained from them. 
Figure 11 shows that the Log in the Log space was the 
move that received first rank at all ages except six and 
seven. The other three moves, namely the Dog — 
Dog, the Football— Football, and the B. Wind.— B. 
Wind, do not display such a constant rank, but the 
range of variability is small when we consider that 
there are 61 possible ranks. The four moves given 
in Figure 12 show very little fluctuation in rank; the 
Chicken— Chicken, the F. Bird— F. Bird, the Cat- 
Cat, and the S. Bird — F. Bird moves vary only from 
one to three places. In Figure 13 the same relatively 
constant tendency is observed in the ranks for the 
Basket — Basket and Hat — Hat moves, but when we 
come to the two ^'logical" errors, the C. Wind, in the 
B. Wind, space and the Baseball in the Football space, 
there appears a somewhat greater range of ranks, 
although this is comparatively slight if we consider 
the total length of the series. The change in rank of 
these two moves is somewhat abrupt as we proceed 
from the lower to the higher ages. 

The correlations determined from the table of ranks 
(Table XLV) are, first, between each age-group and 



DETERMINATION OF SCORES 



63 



TABLE XLV. 

Ranks of Positions 



Position 



Age Groups 



Total 6 



9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Adult 



Log-Log 

Basket-Basket. . . 
Chicken-Chicken . 

Dog-Dog 

Hat-Hat 

Cat-Cat 

FootbaU-FootbaU 

C. Wind.-B. Wind. 
F. Bird-F. Bird. 
B. Wind.-B. Wind. 
Baseball-Football. 
S. Bird-F. Bird... 
Cage-F. Bird 

D. Cat-Cat 

Cherries-Basket. . . 

Hatchet-Log 

Baby-Cat 

M. Bottle-Cat 

Baby-Hat 

Cherries-F. Bird. . 

Purse-Hat 

Chicken-Cat 

Cat-Chicken 

Baby-Dog 

Blank-B.Wind.... 

Blank-Dog . 

Mouse-Hat 

D. Cat-Dog 

Basket-F. Bird. . . . 
Cherries-Football . 

Cat-Hat 

S. Cat-Hat 

Stool-Log 

Cherries-Chicken . 

Cat-Dog 

Bucket-Basket. . . . 
S. Bird-Chicken.. 

F. Bird-Cat 

Fruit-Cat 

Mouse-Dog 

S. Bird-Cat 

Baby-Chicken. . . 
Hatchet-Chicken 
Pumpkin-Football 



1 


4 


4 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2.5 


2 


2 


2 


3 


4 


2 


3 


4 


3 


3 


2.5 


4 


3 


3 


2 


3 


3 


4 


2.5 


4 


7 


7 


5 


5 


4 


4 


2 


4.5 


5 


2.5 


5 


9.5 


5 


6 


4 


5 


5 


5 


4.5 


2 


5 


6 


6 


10 


7 


8 


7 


6 


6 


8 


7 


7.5 


7 


14.5 


12 


8 


6 


6 


8 


8.5 


6 


8 


6 


8 


1 


1 


3 


7 


8 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


9 


9.5 


8 


9 


9 


9 


7 


8.5 


7 


6 


9 


10 


14.5 


10 


11 


10 


10 


9 


7 


9 


9 


7.5 


11 


8 


6 


10 


12 


12 


12 


11 


11.5 


11 


12 


12 


13 


10 


12 


11 


11 


11 


12 


11.5 


12 


11 


13 


5 


14 


13 


14 


16 


28 


20 


13.5 


26.5 


22 


14 


16.5 


16.5 


15 


14 


13 


13 


13.5 


13.5 


14 


13 


15 


12 


15 


14 


14 


14 


15.5 


13.5 


20 


13 


14.5 


16 


11 


13 


19 


16.5 


17 


18 


23 


18.5 


21 


49 


17 


46.5 


26.5 


16 


18.5 


15 


14 


15 


15.5 


21 


16.5 


18 


16.5 


16.5 


27 


22.5 


47.5 


28 


17 


15.5 


16.5 


49 


19 


39 


38 


17 


18.5 


18 


18 


20 


48.5 


21 


32 


20 


39 


22 


27 


20.5 


28 


36 


57 


36.5 


16.5 


22 


21 


23 


30.5 


46.5 


25.5 


24 


18 


32 


28.5 


32 


49 


22.5 


39 


26.5 


35 


38 


40.5 


21.5 


40 


17 


21 


22 


22.5 


23 


33 


27 


31 


20 


28 


32 


18.5 


32 


32 


24 


23 


38 


25 


20.5 


33 


20 


32 


48.5 


43.5 


49 


26 


18.5 


18.5 


21 


28 


55.5 


36 


57 


28.5 


43.5 


49 


26 


31.5 


38 


41.5 


16.5 


55.5 


23.5 


26.5 


48.5 


43.5 


22 


26 


57 


33 


35 


51.5 


24 


28 


17 


28.5 


56.5 


16.5 


28 


39 


38 


27 


22.5 


47.5 


21.5 


48.5 


24 


15 


49 


29.5 


18.5 


38 


27 


45.5 


20 


53.5 


40 


36.5 


43.5 


22 


29.5 


31.5 


33 


35 


38 


24 


23.5 


17 


28.5 


21 


22 


31.5 


39 


26.5 


35 


45.5 


40.5 


28 


20 


24 


32 


49 


31.5 


52 


57.5 


41.5 


51.5 


24 


15.5 


23 


21.5 


32 


14.5 


33 


31.5 


18.5 


19 


31 


33 


53.5 


32 


36.5 


56.5 


49 


34 


46.5 


45.5 


19 


25.5 


28 


36 


40 


36.5 


43.5 


49 


35 


31.5 


45.5 


46.5 


38 


47.5 


44.5 


40 


21.5 


32 


32 


36.5 


31.5 


30.5 


46.5 


38 


40.5 


36 


48.5 


28.5 


43.5 


32 


36.5 


23 


52.5 


35 


31 


33 


53.5 


26.5 


36.5 


56.5 


49 


38 


27.5 


57.5 


52.5 


25.5 


33 


36 


57 


36.5 


26.5 


22 


39.5 


23 


45.5 


56.5 


38 


47.5 


36 


40 


36.5 


43.5 


32 


39.5 


27.5 


26.5 


52.5 


38 


55.5 


44.5 


48.5 


28.5 


43.5 


49 


41 


57 


60 


46.5 


31 


20 


60 


23 


48.5 


21 


49 


44 


39 


26.5 


46.5 


51.5 


28 


60 


57 


36.5 


43.5 


49 


44 


57 


52.5 


35 


56.5 


24 


28 


48.5 


48.5 


43.5 


32 


44 


46.5 


22 


46.5 


45.5 


55.5 


53.5 


32 


58.5 


56.5 


49 



64 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 
TABLE XLV— (Continued) 



Position 



Age Groxips 



Total 6 



10 11 



13 



14 15 



Adult 



Stool-Cat 

Stool-Dog 

Chicken-Hat 

Cup-Cat 

Hatchet-Dog . . . 
Cage-Chicken . . . 

Dog-Hat 

D. Cat-Chicken. 
S. Bhd-Dog. . . . 
F. Bu-d-Hat.... 
Cag^B. Wmd... 
F. Bu-d-FootbaU 
F. Bird-Chicken 

Blank-Log 

Mouse-Chicken . 
B. Wind -Dog... 
Books-Hat 



44 

44 

48 

48 

48 

51.5 

51.5 

51.5 

51.5 

54 

56 

56 

56 

59 

59 

59 

61 



26 

22 

45 

52 

45 

38 

38 

45.5 

57.5 

45.5 

52.5 

45.5 

61 

57.5 

52.5 

20 

52.5 



45.5 
56.5 
45.5 
51.5 
38 
51.5 
60 
31 

45.5 
25.5 
60 
56.5 
38 
5 38 



.5 



44.5 

36 

53.5 

53.5 

53.5 

53.5 

28 

44.5 

36 

44.5 

44.5 

36 

44.5 

53.5 

44.5 

60 

53.5 



36.5 

48.5 

48.5 

58.5 

48.5 

58.5 

58.5 

48.5 

58.5 

36.5 

48.5 

48.5 

24 

48.5 

58.5 

48.5 

48.5 



43.5 

56.5 

43.5 

43.5 

26.5 

56.5 

56.5 

32 

56.5 

56.5 

43.5 

43.5 

21 

26.5 

32 

43.5 

56.5 



52 

52 

25. 

52 

36 

52 

36 

52 

52 

52 

36 

36 

52 

52 

36 

52 

52 



the total group. They answer the question as to the 
relative difficulty of the moves for each age-group as 
compared with the total group. These correlations, 
as computed by the Spearman Foot-Rule method, are 
given herewith: 



Age 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
Ad. 



.80 
.79 
.84 
.90 
.82 
.87 
.80 
.89 
.79 
.74 
.84 



Average 



.825 



DETERMINATION OF SCORES 



65 




Figure 11 



66 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 




Figure 12 



DETERMINATION OF SCORES 



67 




Figure 13 



68 THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 

The p. E. varies from .03 to .04. These correlations 
are high and range only from .74 to .90. These high 
coefficients and their uniformity at every age justify 
the use for subjects of any age of the scoring values 
determined by the total group. They show that, on 
the whole, the relative ease or difficulty of the moves 
is pretty much the same for any age-group. 

In addition to these correlations, we have computed 
by the same method others between each age and 
every other age for the ranking of these 61 moves. 
These correlations are shown in Table XLVI. It will 

TABLE XLVI 

Correlations 

Age 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Ad. 

6 .80 .66 .72 .62 .62 .55 .73 .55 .67 .67 

7 80 .71 .67 .61 .69 .61 .76 .61 .62 .72 

8 66 .71 .78 .73 .71 .69 .66 .69 .59 .79 

9 72 .67 .78 .72 .77 .79 .77 .82 .66 .72 

10 62 .61 .73 .72 .80 .77 .67 .67 .72 .74 

11 62 .69 .71 .77 .80 .73 .80 .76 .82 .81 

12 56 .61 .69 .79 .77 .73 .74 .77 .69 .78 

13 73 .76 .66 .77 .67 .80 .74 .79 .71 .72 

14 55 .61 .69 .82 .67 .66 .77 .79 .72 .75 

15 57 .62 .59 .66 .72 .82 .69 .71 .72 .74 

Ad 67 .72 .79 .72 .74 .81 .78 .72 .75 .74 

be seen that for the 61 moves under consideration 
there is at all ages a high correlation. The coefficients 
fluctuate between .55 and .82. This means that for 
the 61 moves under consideration the relative difficulty 
at all ages is much the same. In other words no age 
or group of ages is strikingly different from the others, 
and therefore we may conclude that no injustice is 
being done to any particular age by our method of 
scoring. Before computing these coefficients it was 
thought that there might be an increasing difference 
between the ages as we proceed from the lower to the 



DETERMINATION OF SCORES 69 

higher ages. For example, Age 6 might be thought to 
correlate most highly with Age 7, less with Age 8, and 
so on up to the adults, with which it might be expected 
to correlate least. An inspection of the table shows 
that this tendency is present, but only to a very slight 
degree. We cannot find any very uniform decrease. 
Looking at the first line of the table, we note that Age 
6 correlates most highly with Age 7, then with ages 
13, 9, adult, 8, 10, 11, 15, 12, and 14, in the order 
named. An inspection of the other ages, taking care 
to begin with the ages closest to the age under con- 
sideration, shows much the same results. On the 
whole, then, the correlations seem to show that no 
particular injustice is done to any age by the method 
of scoring adopted. 



CHAPTER VI 

Norms 

By the foregoing method the 1520 cases were 
scored, and a table of distribution for all the cases by- 
age was made. This table is too extended to give 
here; only a summary can be shown. Table XLVII 
shows the actual number of cases distributed by age 
and by score in units of fifty points. A perfect per- 
formance receives a score of 646. Table XLVIII 
shows the same facts as Table XLVII, except that 
percentages are used in place of numbers, thus making 
possible a direct comparison from age to age absolute. 
Without going into detail, we see that the larger per- 
centages in the table tend to run diagonally from the 
upper left-hand corner down to the lower right-hand 
comer. At no age-group does the largest percentage 
occur in the 600 to 646 score. The largest single per- 
centage of adults and fifteen-year-olds lies in scores 
between 551 and 600. It is interesting to note that 
even adults do not find this test easy to complete 
perfectly. A percentage of 3.3 adults falls below a 
score of 251. The greatest number at any age-group 
receiving a very high score, above 600, is found in the 
fifteen-year-old group. From this group down, there 
is, for this very high score, a steady decrease in per- 
centage to zero at Age 6. Similarly, with the very 
low scores we find the largest percentages at the lower 
ages and a more or less steady diminution in percent- 
age as we proceed to the higher age-groups. 

Percentiles 

From the extended table of distribution not included 
here, percentile scores for every ten per cent were cal- 

70 



NOEMS 



71 



TABLE XLVII. 

Distribtdion of Scores 
Numbers 



Score 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 Ad. 


0- 50.. 


8 


25 


11 


6 




1 




1 


1 






51-100.. 


3 


35 


17 


4 


3 


2 












101-150. . 


. 2 


12 


16 


8 


1 


2 


2 


1 




1 


2 


151-200.. 


. 2 


25 


21 


11 


1 


2 


2 


2 


3 


1 


2 


201-250.. 


. 2 


18 


20 


13 


12 


6 


6 


1 


3 


1 


1 


251-300. . 


. 1 


12 


13 


20 


14 


11 


7 


6 


6 


2 


1 


301-350. . 




7 


15 


17 


20 


14 


8 


11 


5 


2 


3 4 


351-400.. 


. 2 


8 


15 


25 


22 


19 


20 


22 


10 


12 


5 5 


401-450. . 




3 


3 


23 


32 


26 


29 


21 


20 


16 


7 10 


451-500. . 




4 


7 


8 


15 


11 


21 


14 


17 


8 


2 11 


501-550.. 




1 


4 


11 


13 


31 


24 


26 


39 


32 


8 21 


551-600.. 






7 


4 


11 


17 


25 


32 


27 


22 


15 29 


601-646.. 






1 


2 


6 


8 


11 


13 


19 


12 


9 9 



Total... 20 150 150 152 150 150 155 150 150 109 52 92 



TABLE XLVIII. 

Distribution of Scores 
Percentages 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


0- 50 


40.0 


16.6 


7.3 


4.0 




0.7 




0.7 


0.7 








51-100 


15.0 


23.3 


11.3 


2.6 


2.0 


1.3 














101-150 


10.0 


8.0 


10.7 


5.3 


0.7 


1.3 


1.3 


0.7 




0.9 


3.8 




151-200 


10.0 


16.6 


14.0 


7.2 


0.7 


1.3 


1.3 


1.3 


2.0 


0.9 




2.2 


201-250 


10.0 


12.0 


13.3 


8.5 


8.0 


4.0 


3.9 


0.7 


2.0 


0.9 




1.1 


251-300 


5.0 


8.0 


8.7 


13.1 


9.3 


7.3 


4.5 


4.0 


4.0 


1.8 


1.9 




301-350 




4.7 


10.0 


11.2 


13.3 


9.3 


5.2 


7.3 


3.3 


1.8 


- 5.8 


4.3 


351^00 


10.0 


5.6 


10.0 


16.4 


14.7 


12.7 


12.9 


14.7 


6.6 


11.0 


9.6 


5.4 


401-450 




2.0 


2.0 


15.1 


21.4 


17.3 


18.7 


14.0 


13.3 


14.7 


13.5 


10.9 


451-500 




2.6 


4.7 


5.3 


10.0 


7.3 


13.5 


9.3 


11.3 


7.3 


3.8 


12.0 


501-550 




0.7 


2.6 


7.2 


8.7 


20.7 


15.5 


17.3 


26.0 


29.4 


15.4 


22.8 


551-600 






4.7 


2.6 


7.3 


11.3 


16.1 


21.4 


18.0 


20.2 


28.9 


31.3 


601-646 






0.7 


1.3 


4.0 


5.6 


7.1 


8.7 


12.7 


11.0 


17.3 


9.8 


Total 


100.0 


100.1 


100.0 


99.8 


100.1 


100.1 


100.0 

1 


100.1 


99.9 


99.9 


100.0 


99.8 



72 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 



culated for each age-group. These are shown in 
Table XLIX.^ The fifty percentile or median gives 
the age-norm for the test. The median scores for 
children show a steady increase from age to age, and 
would seem to denote sufficient difference from age to 
age to rnake this an excellent test for diagnostic pur- 
poses. The drop of ten points in the median of the 
adults as compared with the fifteen-year-olds raises 
the question whether the test is adapted to adult 

TABLE XLIX. 

Percentile Distribution 



Percentiles 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Highest 


394 


525 


646 


646 


646 


646 


646 


646 


646 


646 


646 


646 


90 


259 


354 


463 


507 


577 


578 


583 


583 


646 


646 


646 


646 


80 


207 


260 


364 


446 


499 


522 


578 


578 


581 


578 


583.5 


583 


70 


169 


219 


318 


422.5 


450 


509 


519 


547 


566 


570 


577.5 


578 


60 


126 


185 


263 


381 


440 


478 


501 


509 


515 


521.5 


567 


569 


50 


89 


153 


239 


328 


407 


435 


455.5 


493 


505 


515 


525 


515 


40 


49 


99 


189 


296 


372 


411 


443 


445 


494 


501 


501 


509 


30 


28 


76 


153 


261 


325 


367 


411 


407 


446 


444 


444 


469 


20 


5 


62 


107 


201.5 


297 


313 


369 


369 


417 


415 


380 


441 


10 


2 


14 


60 


129 


240 


251 


296 


313 


310 


366 


329 


360 


Lowest 











3 


62 


35 


122 


36 


47 


106 


144 


162 


Number .... 


20 


150 


150 


152 


150 


150 


155 


150 


150 


109 


52 


132 


75 %Ue 


207 


245 


348 


439 


477 


515 


534 


570 


578 


578 


583 


583 


Median 


89 


153 


239 


328 


407 


435 


455.5 


493 


505 


515 


525 


515 


25 %ne 


5 


71.5 


131 


235 


310 


339 


380 


382 


436 


437 


435 


453 


Quartile .... 


101 


87 


108 


102 


83 


88 


77 


94 


71 


70 


74 


65 



intelligence. As noted in another chapter, Healy 
reports a poor performance with adults. In explana- 
tion : it may be that a far greater number of possibili- 
ties occur to them than occur to children, or it may be, 
that they do not try as hard as the children to do their 



1 The quartile on this and other tables is the semi-interquartile range. 
We have followed Thorndike in calling it the quartile for purposes of 
brevity. 



NORMS 73 

best, although this was not obvious from their behavior. 
Or it may simply be that our group of fifteen-year-olds 
did actually possess slightly more intelligence than our 
group of adults, if this test is a good test of intelligence. 
The other percentiles show an almost steady in- 
crease from age to age, although this increase is not as 
uniform as the increase of the medians. The curves 
of the percentiles for each age are shown in Figure 14. 
From this graph we note that the 30 percentile, the 
40 percentile, the 60 percentile, the 70 percentile, the 
80 percentile and the 100 percentile as well as the 
50 percentile (median) show no decided breaks from 
age to age, whereas the curves for the lowest score, 
the 10 percentile, and the 20 percentile do show very 
decided breaks at certain ages. For example, the 10 
percentile of the thirteen-year-olds drops slightly 
below that of the twelve-year-olds; similarly, the fifteen- 
year-olds at this percentile drop 37 points below the 
fourteen-year-olds. In the same way, the 20 per- 
centile shows a distinct drop at fifteen years. It is to 
be noted that this lack of a uniform increase in the 
percentiles is characteristic of the upper ages. It is 
most marked at Age 15 where there was the fewest 
number of cases. None of the breaks occur below the 
age of eleven. It is to be noted in reference to the 
100-percentile curve (i. e., the best score at each age) 
that this reaches the maximal score at Age 7 and re- 
mains at this point for all successive age-groups. 
This means that at Age 7 and above there is always 
some individual who can complete the test perfectly. 
The curve showing the lowest score at each age is 
decidedly irregular, and no individual in any age-group 
above seven makes a zero score as in Ages 5, 6, and 7. 
The curve attains its highest point in the adult group. 



74 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 




Figure 14 



NORMS 75 

The greatest irregularity occurs at Age 11, where the 
lowest score is 122 points. The distance between the 
curves on this graph is interesting: in general, the 
curves of the higher and lower percentiles are farther 
apart than those representing the middle group of 
percentiles. This is to be expected in a normal dis- 
tribution, and indicates a normal sampling of our 
individuals in each age-group. 

Figure 15 shows the increase in score for each per- 
centile at each age. From Ages 5 to 11 the curves 
are fairly distinct, with no overlapping, but from Age 
11 onwards there is considerable overlapping at the 
upper and lower ends of the curves, i. e., the difference 
in score from age to age is becoming increasingly less. 
From this graph we can compare the percentile per- 
formance at any age with that of any other age. For 
example, a 90-percentile child of five years makes a 
score that is about equal to an 80-percentile child of 
six years; both of them are equal to a 58-percentile 
child of seven or a 30-percentile child of eight, a 15- 
percentile child of nine, a 10-percentile child of ten, 
and a child below the 10 percentile in all the higher 
ages. This kind of comparison can be made by read- 
ing horizontally across the graph at any height. 

If the results of other tests were to show the same 
general tendencies, it might be possible to make gen- 
eralizations about intelligence of this nature, e. g., a 
very bright five-year-old child has the intelligence of 
an average seven-year-old child or a dull nine-year-old 
child, etc. Obviously, a single test is not sufficient to 
allow of this type of generalization, but merely points 
the way in which such generalization might be made. 

This presentation of the results in percentiles will 
permit the incorporation of this test into any scale 
based on the percentile method. 



76 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 




FiGURS 15 



NORMS 77 

Year-Scale Norms 

• In case the test might prove suitable for inclusion 
in a year scale, we present below the necessary values. 
We have taken the arbitrary 75 per cent standard for 
a year scale — a standard which we believe the best in 
dealing with a test of this type.^ The lowest score 
made by the upper 75 per cent is taken as the year 
scale value and the age interval for any one age ex- 
tends from a point midway between this score and the 
score of the age below to a point midway between this 
score and the score of the age above. These intervals 
have been determined from the 25 percentile column 
in Table XLIX. These limiting scores, or age inter- 
vals, are as follows: 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


Score 


5-38 


39-101 


102-183 


184-272 


273-324 


325-359 



Age 11 12 13 14 15 Ad. 

Score 360-381 382-409 410-436 437-441 442-449 450 and over 

That is to say, all children who make scores of from 
about 5 to 38 are to be given five-year-old credit; all 
children making scores from 39 to 101 are to be given 
five- and six-year-old credit; those between 102 and 
183 receive five-, six- and seven-year-old credit; and 
so on up to age fifteen, where those who make 442 or 
better receive a ''pass" at each year from five to fifteen, 
inclusive. 

The presentation of our results in the form of medi- 
ans, percentiles and year intervals makes possible the 
incorporation of this test into any type of scale or 
group of tests in general use at the present time. 



2 For a discussion of standards for year scales and of the way in 
which a test of this kind can be incorporated into a scale, see Pintner, 
R., and Paterson, D, G., A Scale of Performance Tests, D. Appleton 
and Company, 1917. 



CHAPTER VII 

Sex, Social Status, and School Standing 

The differences in the scores of the children accord- 
ing to their sex, according to the social status of their 
parents, and according to their school standing have 
been briefly investigated. It is not the intention of 
the writers to enter into an exhaustive study of this 
question, but it seemed desirable to study the influence 
of these three factors, particularly of the last two. 
There are an increasing number of studies showing 
the difference in general intelhgence between children 
from better class homes and children from poor homes. ^ 
If the same difference were to be found in this one test, 
it was felt that it would give added reliability to the 
test as a test of intelligence. In the same way, some 
idea of how the accelerated and the retarded pupils 
performed the test might increase our confidence in 
it, if the test showed a difference in the performances 
of these two groups. 

Sex Differences 

No minute analysis was made of the sex differences 
in this test; it was deemed sufficient to find the medi- 
ans for the boys and the girls at each age. 

The median scores are presented in Table L, and 
Figure 16 shows the same facts graphically. From 
the table we see that the median for the boys is greater 
than the median for the girls for Ages 5, 7, 8, 13, and 
for adults, while the median for the girls is higher at 
the remaining ages. From the graph it will be seen 



» Yerkes, R. M., Bridges, J. W., and Hardwick, R. S., A Point Scale 
for Measuring Mental Ability. Warwick and York, 1915. Also, 
Bridges, J. W., and Coler, L., The Relation of Intelligence to Social 
Status. Psych. Review, 24, 1917, 1-31. 

78 



SEX, SOCIAL STATUS AND SCHOOL STANDING 79 

TABLE L. 

Sex Differences 
Median Scores 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 11 

1 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Boys 

Girls 


180 

34 


140 
173 


250 
229 


354 
322 


396 

425 


434 
473 


448 
455 


503 
512 


514 
503 


515 
515 


509 
567 


546 
515 



that the two curves cross and re-cross each other 
several tunes, showing no constant and uniform sex 
difference. The sUght variations of the medians at 
each age are evidently not due to sex. We may, 
therefore, conclude that the test is equally well adapted 
to boys and to girls. 

Differences in Social Status 

The schools in which the tests were made were 
divided into a good, a medium and a poor school. 
The good school, however, was not very superior to 
what we have called the medium school in regard to 
the social status of the childrens' parents. The poor 
school contained children from the laboring classes, 
but could not by any means be considered the poorest 
school in the city. There are relatively few children 
in the medium school, so few in fact that at some ages 
we omitted the median as being too unreliable. 

The median scores according to age for the three 
types of school are shown in Table LI. It will be 
noted that the medians for the good and medium 
schools are very much alike. In fact at three ages 
the median for the medium school is slightly above 
the median for the good school. There is, then, no 
radical difference between these two schools on this 



80" 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 




Figure 16 



SEX, SOCIAL STATUS AND SCHOOL STANDING 81 



TABLE LI. 

Social Status 
Median Scores 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Good 


113 


174 

176 

76 


259 
195 
159 


355 
270 


430 
386 
380 


435 
497 
379 


457 
460 
435 


509 
436 
401 


514 
448 
430 


515 
464 
441 


527 


Medium 




Poor 


440 







test. On the other hand, a comparison of the poor 
with the medium or good school shows a decided dif- 
ference in medians. At every age the medians of the 
poor school are below the other medians. This is 
shown strikingly in the curves on Figure 17. At no 
age does the curve for the poor school reach the curve 
for the good school. The difference is uniform over 
the whole curve and fairly well marked at all ages. 

Racial Differences 

It was thought that the difference between colored 
and white children might be shown by means of 
medians at each age. In our records, however, there 
were only 36 colored children and, therefore, age 
medians would have had no value. The small num- 
ber of colored children does not allow of any important 
conclusions. We have presented the facts, however, 
for what they are worth. Table LII shows the num- 
ber of colored children above or below the median for 

TABLE LII. 

Racial Differences 
Colored Children — Number Above and Below Median 

Age 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total 



Above 

Below 2 8 



13011010 
14434111 



7 
29 



82 



THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 




Figure 17 



SEX, SOCIAL STATUS AND SCHOOL STANDING 83 

their age. At no age is there a greater number of 
colored children above the median than below the 
. median. Of the 36 colored children tested, 29 fell 
below the median for their respective ages and only 7 
made scores better than the median. On the whole, 
therefore, the colored children are inferior to the white, 
but the extent of this inferiority has not been exactly 
determined. 

School Standing 

On the whole, we may say that the child who is 
older than the average age for his grade is duller than 
the average of his age and that the child who is younger 
than the average age for his grade is brighter than 
the average. We shall call the former class of chil- 
dren retarded and the latter accelerated. It is by no 
means a foregone conclusion that the retarded child 
is mentally slow. Some retarded children have been 
found to test mentally bright. And similarly, some 
accelerated children are by no means mentally bright. 
The grade of a child cannot with any certainty be taken 
as an accurate index of his intelligence. There are 
other factors entering into a child's rate of progress 
in school beside his native ability. But on the whole, 
the accelerated pupils represent the brighter, and the 
retarded represent the duller pupils. 

If this test is testing something that enters into the 
complex known as general inteUigence, then we should 
expect on the whole to find the accelerated doing bettter 
in it than the retarded. We have presented our results 
by showing the number of accelerated or retarded at 
each age who make scores above or below the median 
for the age. We have counted as normal, or "at age," 
for the grade as follows: Grade I, Ages 6-7, Grade 
II, Ages 7-8, and so on to Grade X, Ages 15-16. All 



84 THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 

children in grades above the corresponding ages have 
been counted accelerated; all children in grades below 
the corresponding ages have been called retarded. 
The results are presented in Table LIII. 

TABLE LIII. 

School Standing 

Number op Accelerated and Retarded Above and Below Median 
Age 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total 

Accelerated 

Above........ 7 7 18 10 14 11 14 81 

Below........ 3294452 29 

Retarded 

Above 2 3 8 11 11 9 14 58 

Below 2 5 7 12 19 22 19 19 105 

The table is to be read as follows: At Age 6 there 
are 7 accelerated pupils who made scores on this test 
better than the median score for six-year-olds; there 
are 3 accelerated pupils who made scores below that 
median and there are no retarded pupils. Under Age 
10 we find 18 accelerated pupils, of whom 14 made 
scores above the median for ten-year-olds and 4 made 
scores below the median. Of the 10 retarded pupils at 
Age 10, 3 made scores above and 7 below the median. 
Examining the results for the accelerated pupils, we 
note that at every age a decidedly greater number 
make scores above the median than below. The total 
shows 81 making scores above and only 29 below the 
median. That is, out of a total of 110 accelerated 
pupils 74 per cent make scores above the median. 
Turning now to the retarded pupils, we note that at 
every age a greater number score below than above 
the median for their age. The total shows 105 below 
and only 58 above the median. The total number of 
retarded is 163, 64 per cent of whom score below the 
median. 



SEX, SOCIAL STATUS AND SCHOOL STANDING 85 

In general, therefore, we find that there is an agree- 
ment between performance in this test and school 
standing, and it is an agreement such as one might 
anticipate in view of what we have said of the differ- 
ences between the intelligence of the accelerated and 
the retarded pupils in our schools. An absolute agree- 
ment between the results of the test and the school 
standing was not to be expected, and would have been 
suspicious if it had occurred. 



CHAPTER VIII 

Other Methods of Scoring 

Two other methods of scoring have been used for 
this test in work already published. These we have 
mentioned in Chapter II and we now propose to pre- 
sent our results worked out according to these two 
methods, both for purposes of comparison with the 
work already done and for a critical inspection of the 
methods. These two methods are (1) Healy's Method 
and (2) The Method of Right and Wrong Moves, used 
by Hall.i 

Healy's Method 

Healy's norm for children above ten years is: not 
more than one logical and two total errors with a time 
limit of five minutes. His list of logical errors has 
been given in Chapter IV. In another place he says: 
''At eleven years this test should be readily accom- 
plished with not more than one or two final errors, 
and certainly not more than one illogical error. The 
median or average performance for all in the group of 
those ordinary in ability above ten years, is one final 
error and no illogical error. "2 The latter sentence 
would seem to make his norm even a little higher than 
before. 

We have worked over our results in the light of 
Healy's norm, considering as passed all who made not 
more than one logical and two total errors (logical in 
this connection means the particular moves so desig- 
nated by Healy) . As the results were being compiled, 



1 Hall, G., Eleven Mental Tests Standardized, Eugenics and Social 
Welfare Bulletin, No. V, State Board of Charities, N. Y., pp. 74-78. 

2 Healy, W., The Individual Delinquent, Boston, 1915, Chap. VII, 
p. 83, p. 111. 

86 



OTHER METHODS OF SCORING 87 

it became obvious that Healy's norm was much too 
severe. It occurred to us that the time Hmit of five 
minutes might be one of the reasons. Therefore, we 
present the results with and without the time limit 
of five minutes suggested by Healy. 

TABLE LIV. 

Number and Per cent. Passing at Healy' s Standard 

Time Limit No Time Limit 

Age Number Per Cent Number Per Cent 

5 

6 

7 7 4.6 12 8.0 

8 5 3.2 17 11.2 

9 23 15.3 35 23.3 

10 48 32.0 55 36.6 

11 54 33.9 59 37.1 

12 72 47.3 76 50.6 

13 78 52.0 84 56.0 

14 65 59.4 65 59.4 

15 31 59.6 34 65.4 

Adult.. 79 59.8 87 65.9 

Table LIV shows the number and per cent at each 
age who pass the test according to Healy's norm. The 
left half of the table gives the results with the five- 
minute time limit, the right half with no time limit. 
The table is to be read as follows: At Ages 5 and 6 
no children passed the test; 7 children, or 4.6 per cent, 
of the seven-year-olds passed if a time limit is adhered 
to, and 12 or 8 per cent if no time limit is used, and 
so on with the other ages. It will be noted that dis- 
regarding the time limit increases the percentage of 
passes only slightly. 

According to Healy's standard all normal children 
should pass the test at Age 11 and above. At Age 
11 our table shows only 34 per cent (time limit) or 
37 per cent (no time limit) passing the test. It is, of 
course, impossible to conceive of about 60 per cent of 
our eleven-year-olds as below normal. Continuing to 



88 THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 

the twelve-year-olds, we find 47 per cent (time limit) 
or 51 per cent (no time limit) passing the test. Healy's 
norm is obviously too high for twelve-year-olds. Con- 
tinuing up to the 13, 14, 15, and adult age groups, we 
find much the same state of affairs. Healy's norm is 
much too severe for all ages. It is an example of 
inadequate standardization leading to the establish- 
ment of a spurious norm. The danger of this in actual 
clinical work is obvious and real. That the danger is 
real can be shown from certain conclusions drawn by 
Porter,^ who evidently has Healy's norm in mind. We 
shall reserve a discussion of these cases until we have 
presented the results for the other method of scoring, so 
as to be able to interpret Porter's results in the light of 
our norms. 

Method of Right and Wrong Moves 

In this method of scoring, suggested by Hall, only 
the nine correct moves are taken into account. A move 
is either right or wrong. The results for our own 
data according to this method are shown in Table LV. 
This table shows a distribution of the cases according 

TABLE LV. 

Percentage Distribution of Number of Correct Motes 

Number op Correct Moves 

Age 0123456789 

5.. 35.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 10.0 10.0 

6. .18.6 24.6 22.0 16.5 8.0 6.0 3.3 0.7 

7.. 8.0 18.6 18.0 17.3 13.3 10.0 5.3 4.0 4.7 0.7 

8.. 3.9 7.2 10.5 11.8 17.8 16.4 18.4 9.2 3.3 1.3 



9.. 




2.7 


2.7 


10.6 


19.3 


14.6 


25.3 


12.7 


8.0 


4.0 


10.. 


6!7 


2.0 


2.0 


9.3 


10.6 


16.6 


18.7 


23.3 


12.0 


5.3 


11.. 




0.6 


1.9 


4.4 


8.2 


17.0 


28.3 


15.7 


17.6 


6.3 


12.. 


0^7 




2.7 


3.3 


10.0 


13.3 


19.3 


20.0 


22.8 


8.0 


13.. 


0.7 




2.0 


2.0 


6.0 


8.7 


18.7 


28.0 


21.3 


12.7 


14.. 




o^g 


0.9 


0.9 


3.7 


12.0 


16.5 


33.0 


22.0 


10.0 


15.. 






1.9 


1.9 


5.8 


11.5 


13.5 


21.0 


27.0 


17.3 


Ad.. 




•- 


1.5 


3.0 


3.8 


6.8 


15.2 


23.4 


35.6 


10.6 



^ Porter, F., Difficulties in the Interpretation of Mental Tests — 
Types and Examples, The Psych. Clinic, 9: 1915. 



OTHER METHODS OF SCOEING 89 

to the niunber of correct moves. It is to be read as 
follows: At 5 years 35 per cent of the cases made no 
correct moves, 15 per cent made one correct move, 15 
cent made two correct, 15 per cent three correct, 10 
per cent four correct, 10 per cent five correct, and no 
child made more than five correct moves. The other 
ages are to be read in a similar way. The table shows 
the natural tendency for the number of correct moves 
to increase with the higher ages. The percentage of 
persons at each age who made a perfect performance 
can be seen in the last vertical column. It is inter- 
esting to note that Ages 15 and 13 show the highest 
percentages for absolutely correct performances. 

Table LVI presents the medians and 25th and 75th 
percentiles for our data for this method of scoring. 

TABLE LVI. 

Number of Correct Moves 
Number 
Age of Cases 25 %ne Median 75 %Ue QuartUe 

I ,20 1.5 3 1.5 

§ J50 1 2 3 1.0 

I }50 1 3 4-5 1.75 

I }52 3 4 6 1.5 

9 150 4 5.5 6-7 1 2'i 

10 150 4r-5 6 7 ill 

11 159 5 6 7 10 

12........ 150 5 7 8 15 

13 150 6 7 i to 

If 109 6 7 8 10 

15 52 6 7 8 10 

Adult 132 6 7 8 1.0 

The first vertical column gives the age, the next the 
number of cases, the next the 25 percentile score, the 
next the median, the next the 75 percentile score and 
the last the quartile, i. e., the semi-interquartile range, 
which gives an indication of the amount of variation 
among the middle fifty per cent. The median shows 



90 THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 

a steady increase from 1.5 (interpolated) correct moves 
at age five to 7 correct moves at Ages 12 to adult, 
inclusive. For a rough method of scoring these 
medians will suffice, but they cannot compare with 
the system adopted in this work, since no regard is 
paid to the type of errors made. Two children, both 
of whom get seven moves right and two wrong cannot 
be differentiated by this method, whereas the two 
wrong moves in each case may be indicative of very 
different types of ability. 

Our data may now be used for a comparison with 
Hall's results. Hall presents her results in number of 
errors. Subtracting our medians from nine, we get 
the median number of errors and we can compare our 
median errors with Hall's median errors for the six 
age-groups tested by her. This comparison is as 
follows : 



Age 


Hall's Median 


Oiir Median 


7 


7 


7 


8 


5 


5 


9 


3 


3.5 


10 


4 


3 


11 


3 


3 


12 


3 


2 



The similarity of the results is striking; the only 
difference occurs at Ages 10 and 12, where it amounts 
to one error. It is to be remembered that Hall tested 
only 30 children at each age and that her twelve- 
year-old children are notably poor on all the tests re- 
ported by her. We think we may say that our median 
is a better index of twelve-year-old ability in this test. 

In the light of these two methods of scoring, we 
may now examine Porter's special cases, which were 
evidently published before any other norms, with the 
exception of Healy's, were obtainable. We are able 



OTHER METHODS OF SCORING 91 

to criticise the results of Porter only from the point 
of view of number of errors, since we have made no 
separate tabulation for the number of logical and il- 
logical errors as defined by Healy. We have chosen 
examples showing close agreement and great disparity 
with our interpretation. 

Case 3. Chron. Age 14. Completion Test— 7 
errors. Porter— ''exceedingly stupid performance." 
Our standard— Six-year-old ability. 

Case 8. Chron. Age 12. Binet— fails on one 
twelve-year test. Completion Test— errors. Por- 
ter— ''rather a slow performance." Our standard- 
better than fifteen-year-old abilitv. This is a surpris- 
ingly good record for a twelve-year-old, of which fact 
Porter seems to take little account. The record puts 
the case among the highest 8 per cent of our twelve- 
year-old children. 

Case 9. Chron. Age 10. Binet 9.2, "almost up to 
age." Completion Test— 3 errors. Porter— "done 
rather slowly." Our standard— ten- or eleven-year- 
old ability. This is exactly what we should expect 
from a boy of this age. 

Case 10. Chron. Age 16. Binet 10. Completion 
Test— 1 error. Porter— " distinctly well done." Our 
standard— above fifteen-year-old abihty, up to expecta- 
tion for a boy of his age. Note discrepancy between 
Binet test and Picture Completion test. 

Case 11. A deaf boy. Chron. Age 17. No Binet. 
Completion Test— errors. Porter makes no com- 
ment. Our standard— above fifteen-year-old ability. 
A remarkably good performance for a seventeen-year- 
old deaf boy. 

Case 17. Chron. Age 11. Binet 7.8. Completion 
Test— 6 errors. Porter makes no comment. Our 



92 THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 

standard — 7-year ability. Just what we should expect 
in a boy of that mentality according to the Binet. 

Other cases show a similar agreement or discrepancy 
between Our interpretation of the result of the test 
and the comments offered by Porter. At times we 
feel that her interpretation of the result of the test is 
totally inadequate and wrong, and all the way through 
at best we can have little better than good guess-work 
without an adequate standardization for purpose of 
comparison. 

. This discussion of other methods of evaluating per- 
formances in this test leads us to the conclusion that 
they are lacking in many respects in comparison with 
the method of scoring proposed by the authors. Both 
Healy's norm and the evaluation by number of errors 
are too crude for a complex test of this nature. There 
are so many possibilities that we ought to score these 
according to their ease or difficulty, and thus differen- 
tiate between many different types of performance. 



CHAPTER IX 

The Time 

As stated previously, a record was kept of the exact 
time taken by each observer to complete the test. 
The time was taken for the first period, i. e., until the 
observer had signified that he had finished, and also 
for the second period, i. e., at the completion of the 
entire performance after he had been asked by the ex- 
aminer whether he wished to change any of the blocks. 
In this work the results for the complete performance 
only have been used. 

For each age a distribution of time in minutes was 
made. A summary of this distribution is given in 
Table LVII. In this and in Table LVIII the time 

TABLE LVII. 

Percentage Distribution of Cases for Each Period of Time 
Time in Minutes 



Age 


— 1 


1 


2 


3 


4 5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 12 


13 


14 


15 


16- 
17 


18 


5 




5.0 


30.0 


25.0 




20.0 




10.0 


10.0 




















6 


1.3 


6.0 


12.6 


23.3 


16.6 


14.0 


5.3 


6.7 


2.7 


2.7 


3.3 


1.3 


2.0 




0.7 


0.7 




0.7 


7 




4.7 


8.7 


17.3 


18.0 


13.3 


10.0 


12.6 


5.3 


6.0 


3.3 


1.3 


0.7 












8 




2.0 


11.8 


19.8 


15.1 


16.5 


13.8 


7.2 


5.9 


1.3 


1.3 


2.0 


2.6 




0.7 








9 






16.6 


28.0 


17.3 


12.0 


8.7 


6.0 


4.0 


2.0 


2.7 


1.3 


0.7 


0.7 










10 




5.3 


22.0 


29.3 


22.0 


10.0 


6.7 


2.0 


2.0 


0.7 


















11 




3.8 


28.4 


30.8 


18.2 


11.3 


3.1 


2.5 


1.3 




0.6 
















12 




6.7 


31.3 


30.0 


21.3 


6.7 


3.3 




0.7 




















13 




10.0 


38.0 


28.7 


16.6 


2.0 


3.3 


0.7 


0.7 




















14 


0.9 


1.8 


35.9 


30.2 


10.1 


2.7 




1.8 






















15 




11.5 


50.0 


27.0 




3.8 


5.8 




1.9 




















Adult 




14.1 


49.0 


17.4 


8.7 


7.6 


2.2 












1.1 













intervals are all expressed in minutes. Minus one 
means all fractions of a minute from seconds to 59 
seconds; one means all records from one minute up to 

93 



94 THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 

one minute and 59 seconds, and so on. It was deemed 
unnecessary, as the results will show, to give fractions 
of a minute.. 

In Table LVII the percentage of cases at each age 
is shown according to the time taken. Glancing down 
the vertical columns it will be noted that practically no 
observers finished before one minute, and not more 
than 14.1 per cent in any one age-group finished within 
one minute and 59 seconds. In the third column (2 
minutes to 2 minutes and 59 seconds) we note at each 
age a fairly large percentage of cases; the lowest is 8 
per cent at Age 7 and the highest 50 per cent at Age 
15. In the 3-minute column we find again a large 
percentage of cases at each age; the lowest is 17 per 
cent at Age 7 and adults, and the highest 30 per cent 
at Ages 11, 12, and 14. In the 4-minute column the 
percentage on the whole drops off as compared with 
the two preceding columns. In the five minute col- 
umn the percentages are on the whole still lower. 
In the remaining columns the percentages continue to 
decrease very rapidly. From this point on, there are 
always zero percentages at each age. 

There is therefore little difference in the time taken 
to complete the test at each age. The table shows us 
that in general there is a slight tendency for longer 
periods of time among the lower ages. This tendency 
is by no means uniform. The largest scattering of 
cases occurs at Age 6. The general impression ob- 
tained from the table is the close similarity of the 
time period required to complete the test from age to 
age. The number of the cases in the 2- and 3-minute 
columns seems greater at all ages than the number in 
the other columns. This can be seen from the follow- 
ing summary. Taking the cases that took from 2 to 



THE TIME 



95 



3 minutes and 59 seconds at Age 5 to Adult, we have 
the following series of percentages: 55.0, 35.9, 26.0, 
31.6, 44.6, 51.3, 59.2, 61.3, 66.7, 66.1, 77.0, 66.4. 

These figures show the greater uniformity in time 
period as we proceed to the upper ages. Age 5 is 
represented by only 20 cases and this suggests that 
the relatively large percentage shown in the figures 
above is probably due to chance. These figures indi- 
cate the greater scattering of cases over the longer 
time periods in the lower ages. A glance at the first 
two columns of Table LVII will show that the scatter- 
ing is in the main over the longer time periods and not 
over the shorter, since a very small percentage of cases 
at any age complete the test within two minutes. 

Table LVIII shows the medians and percentiles for 
the time at each age. Column 1 gives the age. Column 

TABLE LVIII. 

Medians and Percentiles for Time at Each Age 

Time in Minutes 

Age Number Median ^b^o'AQ 75%ile Total 

Range 

5 20 3 2 5 Ito 8 

6 150 4 3 6 —Ito 18 

7 150 5 3 7 Ito 12 

8 152 5 3 6 Ito 14 

9 150 4 3 6 2 to 13 

10 150 3 2 4 Ito 9 

11 159 3 2 4 1 to 10 

12 150 3 2 4 Ito 8 

13 150 3 2 4 Ito 8 

14 109 2 2 3 —Ito 7 

15 52 2 2 3 Ito 8 

Adult 92 2 2 3 Ito 12 

2 the number of cases, Column 3 the median time in 
minutes, Column 4 the 25 percentile. Column 5 the 
75 percentile, and the last column the range in time 
from shortest to longest. The medians vary from 



96 THE PICTURE COMPLETION TEST 

age to age very slightly. Again we see the tendency 
for the median to decrease as we approach the higher 
ages. The percentiles bear out what was noted in 
the table of distribution, that the greater number of 
cases lie within relatively narrow limits of time. The 
range indicates the extreme variations. 

It is obvious from this discussion that we cannot 
take the length of time as a measure of the individual's 
excellence in the test. The distinct differences in 
score denoting the excellence of the performance as we 
proceed from a lower to a higher age-group are so 
marked as to make any difference in time of no conse- 
quence in this test. It would seem to be entirely 
unjust to penalize a performance because of the length 
of time taken or to award more credit for a performance 
somewhat quicker than the average. The differences 
in time from age to age are not sufficient to warrant 
this. It may be desirable for practical purposes to 
limit the time to eight or to ten minutes. This limita- 
tion is to be recommended in the use of the test in a 
scale of performance tests. It would be a justifiable 
procedure, since we must remember that the examinee 
is doing many other tests and is not to be fatigued by 
any one test. If a limit of 10 minutes were imposed 
very few of the cases would be affected by it, since 
never more than 5 per cent of the cases at any age 
took more time. 

If we examine a little more closely the cases that 
took ten or more minutes to complete the test, we 
find that the majority of these occur in the lower ages. 
All but two occur at nine years or below. The excel- 
lence of the performances taking ten or more minutes 
is as follows: At Age 5 there were no cases; at Age 6 
there were 13 cases, of which 10 scored above average 



THE TIME 97 

for that age and 3 below; at Age 7 there were 8 cases, 
4 above and 4 below the average score; at Age 8 there 
were 10 cases, 6 above and 4 below the average score; 
at Age 9 there were 8 cases, 6 above and 2 below the 
average score; at Age 10 there were no cases; at Age 
11 there was one case below the average score; at 
Ages 12 to 15 there were no cases; among the adults 
there was one case, and it fell below the average score. 
This seems to indicate that there is little relation 
between the long time taken and the score made. 
Most of these long-time cases scored somewhat better 
than the average for their age. This fact again em- 
phasizes the uselessness of the time taken as a measure 
of the excellence of the performance. The conclusion 
is, therefore, that time should not be taken into ac- 
count in evaluating the excellence of a performance 
in the test. The only restriction in regard to time 
that might arise would be a practical one, and, if a 
time limit of 10 minutes were imposed, some slight 
penalty would attach to those taking too long a time. 



CHAPTER X 

Conclusions 

The justification for this lengthy and minute analysis 
of one test lies, we believe, in the increasing demands 
made by clinical psychology for more effective and 
reliable measuring instruments. It seems to the 
authors that these demands cannot be met except by 
very detailed studies of individual tests. Studies of 
this sort are beginning to appear on all sides. The 
time of rough and ready standardization is passed, 
because we are beginning to realize its dangers and 
because we are expecting a test to give us more than a 
vague indication of a child's ability. 

It ought not to be necessary to say that this test as 
standardized by us must take its place simply as one 
among a group of tests used for clinical purposes. No 
child's mentality can be described on the basis of a 
single test, however accurately standardized. 

A summary of the chief results of this study follows: 

(1) The test has proved to be excellently adapted 
for children at all ages and to some extent for adults. 

(2) The method of presentation used by Healy has 
been found to meet fully the requirements of practical 
testing. 

(3) The 1520 subjects tested have proved sufficient 
to determine a method of scoring and to arrive at 
reliable norms for Ages 6 to 14, inclusive. 

(4) The method of scoring has been determined 
from a purely objective standpoint. It depends upon 
the relative ease or difficulty of any of the 369 possible 
moves. The ease or difficulty of a move is determined 
by the number of individuals that make that move. 



CONCLTJS'ONS 99 

(5) Age-norms and percentile norms for each age 
have been established, and the number of subjects 
tested at each age is large enough to insure their reli- 
ability. These norms can be used for purposes of a 
year scale, a point scale, or a percentile scale. 

(6) The test is equally well adapted to boys and to 
girls. Neither sex shows decided or consistent super- 
iority over the other in the performance of the test. 

(7) Children from a good or medium social environ- 
ment are able to perform the test somewhat better 
than children from a poor environment. This cor- 
responds to the difference in general intelligence 
between such groups shown by other tests. 

(8) The accelerated pupils did better than the re- 
tarded pupils, which shows that the test is differenti- 
ating between good and poor pupils. 

(9) The other methods of scoring that have been 
proposed up to the present time do not do adequate 
justice to the test. They are too rough for the finer 
differentiations that are possible with it. 

(10) The time taken to perform the test has been 
found to be relatively unimportant as a measure of 
ability, so much so as not to have been taken into 
account in scoring the performance. 

(11) The method of scoring is justified by the high 
correlations between the rank in order of difficulty 
for each age and the rank for the total group of sub- 
jects tested. 

(12) Correlations between the performance at each 
age and that at every other age show that the difficulty 
of the various moves is roughly the same for children 
of all ages. 



INDEX 



Bmet,4, 11 
Bobertag, 5 
Bridges, 5, 78 
Brown, 3 
Burt, 3, 11 

CatteU, 2 
Coler, 78 

Completion Method, Ebbing- 
haus, 9 
Trabue, 9 
Correlation, 2, 59ff. 
Cube Test, 6 

Ebbinghaus, 9 

Farrand, 2 

Fernald, 9 

Fisher, 7 

Form-Board, Seguin, 5, 6 

Galton, 3 
Gamble, 13 
Goddard, 5 

Hall, 86, 88, 90 

Hardwick, 5, 78 

Hart, 2 

Healy, 6, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 

19, 21, 22, 39, 40, 72, 86, 87, 

88, 90, 91, 92, 98 
Henri, 4 

Intelligence Quotient, 7 
Coefficient of, 7 



Kirkpatrick, 2 
Knox, 5 
Krueger, 2 
Kuhhnan, 5 

Logical errors, discussion of, 
39, 57 

Moves, Rank of, 62ff. 

Norms, 70ff. 
Year Scale, 77 

Otis, 5 

Paterson, 77 
Percentile Method, 7, 8 
Percentiles, 70ff. 

Graphs of, 74ff. 
Picture Completion Test, Au- 
thor's results for, 22ff. 

Delinquents tested by, 13 

Description of, 9flf. 

Healy's results for, 12ff. 

Hall's results for, 14ff. 

Psychopathic cases tested by, 
13 

University students tested 
by, 13 
Pintner, 6, 7, 77 
Porter, 88, 90, 91, 92 
Procedure, Method of, 16ff. 

Race, Differences due to, 81f. 
Recording, Method of, 17f . 



100 



INDEX 



101 



Sanctis, de, 5 

Scale, Binet-Simon, 4 

Knox, 5 

Sanctis, 5 

Terman, 5 

Yerkes-Bridges, 5 
Schmitt, 6 
School Standing, Influence of, 

83ff. 
Scores, Determination of the, 
52ff. 

Distribution of, 71, 72 

Table of, 58 
Scoring, Healy's Method of, 
86ff. 

Method of Right and Wrong 
Moves, 88ff. 

Methods of, 86£f. 
Sex, Differences due to, 78f. 
Simon, 4 
Simpson, 3 
Social Status, Differences in, 

79ff. 



Spaces and Blocks, Contrac- 
tions for, 22 (footnote) 

Spearman, 2 

Standardization, problem of, 3, 6 

Stern, 5, 7, 11 

Subjects, Description and num- 
ber of, 19ff. 

Sylvester, 5, 7 

Terman, 5 
Thorndike, 72 
Time, 93£f. 
Trabue, 9 

WaUin, 6, 7 
WeUs, 2 
Whipple, 2, 6 
Whitley, 3 
Wissler, 3 
Woodworth, 2 
WooUey, 7, 8 

Yerkes, 5, 8, 78 



